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SOME  ACCOMPLISHMENTS 

OF  THE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

FROM  THE  EARLY  1920S  TO  1975 


A  collection  of  summaries 
Prepared  by  L.  E.  Card,  professor  emeritus 


August,  1978 

College  of  Agriculture 

University  of  Illinois  at  Urbana-Champaign 


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s>  n  FOREWORD  ^  '  '  C 

Cap  3 

This  publication  includes  brief  summaries  of  various  activities  of  the  College 
of  Agriculture  from  the  early  1920' s  to  about  1975.   They  were  prepared  by  Professor 
Leslie  E.  Card,  who  was  head  of  the  Department  of  Animal  Science  at  the  time  of  his 
retirement  in  1960.   The  articles  were  written  in  1975,  1974,  and  1975. 

Most  of  the  subjects  were  suggested  by  representatives  of  the  different  units  of 
the  College  of  Agriculture  as  examples  of  major  developments  in  their  areas  during 
the  last  half  century.   These  of  course  were  not  the  only  important  achievements  of 
the  College  during  that  time.   Some  subjects  were  not  included  because  they  were  ade- 
quately reported  in  other  accessible  places,  others  because  they  presented  difficul- 
ties in  getting  the  basic  information  needed  from  which  to  prepare  a  summary.   The 
reports  given  here,  however,  can  be  a  valuable  guide  to  much  of  the  work  of  the  Col- 
lege during  that  period  and  may  serve  as  a  starting  point  for  someone  who  wants  to 
explore  a  particular  area. 

The  articles  were  reviewed  and  edited  in  1978,  by  A.W.  Janes,  head  of  the  Office 
of  Publications,  but  remain  essentially  as  Dr.  Card  wrote  them  approximately  four 
years  ago.   Some  articles  could  have  been  revised  to  bring  in  more  recent  informa- 
tion, but  the  gain  would  have  been  small  for  the  effort  expended.   When  we  consider 
how  the  work  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  continually  unfolds,  a  revision  would  be 
out  of  date  again  in  a  short  time. 

The  articles  appear  in  the  alphabetical  order  of  their  titles.   The  reader  will 
need  to  use  both  the  list  of  titles  and  the  subject  index  to  locate  articles  of  in- 
terest.  The  index  was  prepared  by  Jean  Koch  and  Sarojini  Balachandran  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  Library. 

I  am  grateful  to  Dr.  Card  for  contributing  to  our  understanding  of  our  heritage 
in  the  College  of  Agriculture. 

August,  1978  O.G.  Bentley,  Dean 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Page 

Advisory  Committees  in  Agriculture  1 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 3 

Agricultural  Outlook  Information  5 

Agriculture  Library 6 

Agronomy  Research  Centers 7 

Allowable  Loads  for  Anchor  Bolts  in  Concrete  9 

Amino  Acid  Requirements  of  Swine  and  Poultry 10 

Anaplasmosis 13 

Antibiotic  Drugs  and  Their  Residues 14 

Antibiotic  Research 15 

Beef  Performance  Testing 17 

Beneficial  Soil  Fungi--the  Endogones 19 

Blanching  Vegetables  Before  Freezing 20 

Botulism  Poisoning  Protection .21 

Bound  Water  Determination  by  NMR 22 

Chemical  Composition  of  the  Adult  Human  Body 23 

Coccidian  Parasite  Literature. 24 

Concrete  Wall  Panels 25 

Control  of  Estrus  and  Ovulation  in  Ewes  by  the  Use  of  Implants 26 

Control  of  Ovulation  Time  in  Sheep  and  Swine 27 

Controlled  Atmosphere  for  Storage  of  Vegetables 28 

Controlled  Feeding  as  a  Technique  in  Animal  Experimentation 30 

Cooperative  Extension  Service 31 

Corn  Breeding. 41 

Costs  of  Transferring  Farm  Property  by  Inheritance 42 

Cottonwood  Genetics 44 

Crop  Yields—Variability  in  Illinois  Counties 46 

Dairy  Herd  Improvement 47 

Degree  Days  for  Predicting  Crop  Development 49 

Dixon  Springs  Agricultural  Center 50 

Double  Mating  Used  to  Determine  Optimum  Time  for  Insemination 52 

Durability  of  Fence  Posts 53 

Economics  of  Machinery  Choice  in  Corn  Production 54 

Embryo  Survival  in  Pigs 55 

European  Corn  Borers  in  Illinois 56 

Expanded  Food  and  Nutrition  Education  Program 57 

Factorial  Methods  of  Estimating  Nutrient  Requirements 58 

Farm  and  Home  Week 59 

Farm  Business  Farm  Management  Association 60 

Farm  Cost  Accounting 62 

Farm  Income  Tax  Schools 66 

Farm  Leasing  Practices 68 

Fat-Corrected  Milk 70 

Feeding  Standards  for  Lambs 71 

Film  Packaging  of  Heat-Processed  Orange  Juice  Products 72 

Food  Flavors  Studied  by  Mass  Spectrometry 73 

4-H  Club  Work 74 

Fruit  Cracking  Resistance  in  Tomatoes 75 

Funk  Award  Recognition  Program 76 

Gene  Interaction  and  the  A-0  and  H  Blood-Group  Systems  in  Pigs 77 

Genetic  Immunity  to  Apple  Scab 78 

Genetic  Vulnerability 79 

Genie  Sterility  in  Hybrid  Corn  Production .  .83 

The  H  Blood-Group  System  and  Reproduction  in  Pigs 85 

Hardwood  Bark  for  Packaging  Bare-Root  Nursery  Stock 86 

iii 


Hardwood  Bark  Mulch  for  Roadside  Slopes 87 

Hay  Pellets  for  Beef  Calves 89 

Hemoglobin  Types  and  Transferrin  (Beta  Globulin)  Types  in  Sheep 90 

Hereditary  Resistance  to  Disease 91 

High- Pressure  Preservative  Treatment  of  Wood 94 

Home  Economics  Extension 96 

Horse  Pulling  Contests 98 

Horses  For  Farm  Power 99 

Horticultural  Uses  for  Hardwood  Bark 100 

How  Milk  is  Made 101 

Illiasco  K-40  Counter 103 

Illini  Chrysanthemums  105 

Illini  Nellie  106 

Illinois  Beef  Industry 108 

Illinois  Inbred  Lines  of  Corn  and  Corn  Hybrids 109 

Illinois  Soils--Being  Depleted  by  Heavy  Cropping?  110 

Illinois  Soils'  Productivity Ill 

Illinois  Soil  Survey 113 

Immunization  Against  Pox  in  Domestic  Fowl  115 

International  Agricultural  Programs  116 

Intsoy 135 

Leptospirosis  137 

Listerellosis  in  Domestic  Animals  138 

Livestock  Waste  Management  Studies 139 

Low-Temperature  Drying  and  Conditioning  of  Shelled  Corn  141 

The  M  Blood-Group  System  and  Survival  of  Suffolk  and  Targhee  Lambs 145 

The  Maize  Genetics  Laboratory  146 

McLean  County  System  of  Swine  Sanitation 148 

Meat  for  the  Table 149 

Meat-Type  Hog  Program  150 

MUCIA 152 

Natural  History  Survey  Disease  Research  156 

Nuclear  Magnetic  Resonance- -NMR  158 

Nutrient  Levels  in  Illinois  Soils  and  Crops  159 

Nutrition  and  Climatic  Stress  160 

Pipeline  Milking 161 

Plant  Nutrients  Used  on  Crops  and  Pastures  in  Illinois 162 

Red  Stele  Rot  of  Strawberries 163 

Resident  Instruction 164 

Root  Development  in  Contrasting  Illinois  Soils 173 

Row  Spacing  for  Soybeans 174 

Rural  Electrification  in  Illinois  .....  175 

Slopes  of  Illinois  Watersheds  and  Soil  Association  Areas 176 

Sources  of  Scotch  Pine  for  Christmas  Tree  Plantations  177 

Southern  Corn  Blight 178 

Soybean  Cyst  Nematode 179 

The  Soybean  Story  in  Illinois  180 

Spacing  Pine  Christmas  Trees 183 

Spoilage  Problems  with  Wet  Corn 184 

Staff  in  1922  . 185 

Stalkage  and  Husklage  for  Wintering  Beef  Cattle  189 

Succession  of  Fetuses  at  Parturition  on  the  Pig 191 

Super  Sweet  Corn 192 

Sweet  Corn  Breeding 193 

Swine  Type  Studies 194 

Synthetic  Mulches  for  Vegetable  Crops  196 

Transmissible  Gastroenteritis  (TGE)  of  Swine 197 

iv 


Transuterine  Migration  of  Embryos  in  the  Pig 198 

Urbana  Weather  Station 199 

Urea  in  Ruminant  Nutrition 200 

Vocational  Agriculture  Service 201 

Water  Adsorption  Rate  of  Wheat  Flour  Related  to  Cake-Baking  Performance  ....  202 

Water  Losses  Through  Surface  Runoff  ...  203 

Water  Use  by  Row  Crops .  204 

Weed  Control 206 

Wheelchair  Kitchens  208 

Zoonoses  Research  Center 210 


INDEX 

(This  index  needs  to  be  used  in  connection  with  the  contents  because  entries  that 
would  be  identical  with  the  contents  entries  are  usually  not  repeated.) 

Advisory  committees  in  Agriculture,  composition  and  functions  of  /  1 

Africa,  programs  in  /  130 

Agricultural  Economics  Research  Reports,  on  farm  cost  accounting  /  63 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Illinois,  establishment  of  /  3 

,  publications  of  /  4 

,  purpose  of  /  3 

Agricultural  outlook  /  5 

Agricultural  University  in  India  /  119 

Agriculture  curricula,  history  of  /  166 

Anchorage  systems  in  buildings,  design  of  /  9 

Antibiotics  /  14,15 

Apples,  immunity  from  scab  /  78 

Beef  calves,  nutrients  for  /  89 

Beef  industry,  trends  /  108 

Beef  production  /  149 

Botulism  poisoning,  protection  in  animals  against  /  21 

Bound  water,  quantitative  determination  by  using  NMR  /  22 

Cattle,  disease  in  (Anaplasmosis)  /  13 

(leptospirosis)  /  137 

Cattle  testing  /  47 

Center  for  Zoonoses  Research,  University  of  Illinois  /  210 

Chrysanthemums,  breeding  of  /  105 

Coffee  rust  /  80 

College  of  Agriculture,  Directory,  1922-23  /  185 

Committee  on  Genetic  Vulnerability  of  Major  Crops,  Agricultural  Board  of  the 
National  Research  Council  /  81 

vi 


Corn  breeding,  research  in  /  41 

Corn  drying  and  conditioning  /  141 

Corn  forage  /  189 

Corn  genetics  /  83 

Corn  hybrids  /  109 

Corn  leaf  blight,  southern  /  79,  178 

Corn  mutations  in  /  79 

Corn  production,  hybrid  /  83 

Corn  silage  /  189 

Corn,  tests  for  safe  storage  /  143 

Cottonwood  genetics  /  44 

County  Farm  Bureaus,  formation  of  /  38 

Crop  development,  prediction  of  /  49 

Crop  yields,  variability  /  46 

Disease  in  domestic  animals  (Listerellosis)  /  138 

Disease  in  domestic  fowl  (fowl  pox)  /  115 

Disease  resistance  in  animals  /  91 

Diseases  of  plants  /  79 

Dixon  Springs  Experiment  Station,  zoonoses  study  at  /  210 

Drugs,  antibiotics,  residue  detection  in  animals  /  14 

Elm  trees,  diseases  of  /  156 

Enrollment  statistics,  College  of  Agriculture  /  171 

Estrus,  control  of  /  26 

Extension  Service  /  31-40 

Farm  advisers  /  32 

Farm  Bureaus,  formation  of  /  32 

Farm  Business  Association  /  60 

Farm  cost  accounting  /  62 

Farm  machinery  /  54 

vii 


Farm  outlook,  reports  and  meetings  /  5 

Feeding,  controlled  /  30 

Fence  posts,  protection  against  decay  /  53 

Flavor  in  foods,  study  of  /  73 

Foreign  student  enrollment,  College  of  Agriculture  /  172 

Fowl  pox,  immunization  /  115 

Genetic  vulnerability  of  crops  /  79 

Genetics,  cottonwood  /  44 

Grain  Conditioning  Conference  /  141 

Grain  drying,  management  of  /  141 

Handicapped  persons,  kitchens  designed  for  /  208 

Hardwood  bark,  horticultural  uses  of  /  100 

Herbicides,  use  of  /  206 

Herd  improvement  programs  /  47 

Home  Economics  Extension,  services  of  /  96 

Horse  power  /  98,99 

Human  body,  chemical  composition  of  /  23 

Husklage  /  189 

Hybrids,  corn  /  109 

Illinois  Expanded  Food  and  Nutrition  Education  Program  /  57 

Illinois  Farmers  Institute  /  31 

Income  tax,  guidance  to  farmers  /  66 

India,  aid  programs  /  116 

Inheritance  taxes  /  42 

International  programs  /  116 

International  Soybean  Programs  /  135 

Jordan,  programs  in  /  132 

Kitchens,  arranged  for  wheelchair  use  /  208 

Lambs,  feeding  of  /  71 


Vlll 


Leases,  agricultural  /  68 

Leptospirosis  /  137 

Library  facility  /  6 

Listerellis  /  138 

Livestock  waste  management  /  139 

Maize  genetics  /  146 

Market  classes  and  grades  for  meat  /  149 

McLean  County  System  /  148 

Milk,  fat  content  of  /  70 

,  production  process  /  101 

Milking  machines  /  161 

Moisture  absorption  rate  of  wheat  flour  /  202 

Morrow  Plots  Weather  Station  /  199 

Mulch,  bark  and  wood,  uses  of  /  86 

,  synthetic  /  196 

North  Central  Regional  Tree  Improvement  Committee  /  177 
Nuclear  magnetic  resonance  (NMR) ,  analysis  of  corn  /  158 

,  used  for  determination  of  bound  water  /  22 

Nursery  stock,  packaging  of  /  86 

Nutrition  and  climatic  stress  /160 

Nutrition  requirements  for  animals  /  58 

Oak  trees,  diseases  of  /  156 

Ovulation,  control  of  /  26 

Oxidation  ditch  mixed  liquor  (ODML)  /  139 

Packaging  for  heat-processing  orange  juice  products  /  72 

Parasites,  coccidian,  of  rodents  and  ruminants,  review  of  literature  on  /  24 

,  plant  /  79 

Performance  testing  of  beef  /  17 
Pine  trees,  spacing  of  /  183 

ix 


Pipeline  milking  /  161 

Plant  composition  tests  /  159 

Plant  nutrients  /  162 

Plant  parasites  /  79 

Poisoning,  botulism,  in  animals  /  21 

Pork  Premiere  /  151 

Poultry,  protein  requirements  of  /  10 

Property  taxes  /  42 

Radioactivity,  detection  of  /  103 

Research,  agricultural,  benefits  of  /  3 

,  federal  funds  of  /  3 

Research  findings,  communication  of  /  4 

Root  development,  study  of  /  173 

Rural  electrification  /  175 

Scotch  pine  trees,  source  of  /  177 

Sheep,  mortality,  effect  of  blood-group  systems  on  /  145 

,  productivity,  effect  of  blood  types  on  /  90 

Soil  Conservation  Service  /  176 
Soil,  fertility  tests  /  110,  159 

,  fungi  /  19 

,  productivity  /  111,  159 

,  research  /  7 

,  survey  in  Illinois  /  113 

,  treatments,  demonstration  of  /  7 

Southern  corn  blight  fungus  /  79,  178 

Soybean  cyst  nematode  /  179 

Soybeans,  genetic  vulnerability  of  /  81 

,  International  Soybean  Program  /  135 

,  row  spacing  /  174 


,  utilization  of  /  181 


Stalklage  /  189 
Strawberries,  root  rot  /  165 
Sweet  corn,  breeding  /  192,  193 
Swine,  birth  order  of  fetuses  /  191 

,  blood  group  systems  /  77 

,  boar-testing  stations  and  certification  /  150 

,  demonstrations  of  meat -types  /  150 

,  disease  of  (leptospirosis)  /  137 

,  disease  of  (transmissible  gastroenteritis)  /  197 

,  embryos,  transuterine  migration  and  distribution  /  198 

,  porcine  stress  syndrome  (PSS)  /  81 

,  protein  requirements  of  /  10 

,  reproduction,  effect  of  blood  types  on  /  85 

sanitation  /  148 

types,  comparison  of  /  194 

waste  management  /  139 

Teacher  evaluation  /  170 

Teaching  agriculture  /  165 

Teaching,  views  on  /  164 

Tomatoes,  crack-resistant  /  75 

Tree  diseases  /  156 

Urea  as  a  feed  supplement  /  200 

Uttar  Pradesh  Agricultural  University  /  119 

Vegetables,  blanching  of  /  20 

,  effect  of  controlled  atmosphere  on  storage  /  28 

,  scalding  of  /  20 

Wall  panels,  precast  concrete,  advantages  of  /  25 
Waste  management  /  139 

xi 


Water  runoff  study  /  203 

Water  use  by  row  crops  /  204 

Weather  station,  Morrow  Plots  /  199 

Wheat  flour,  water  absorption  rate  /  202 

Wheat  rust  /  80 

Zoonotic  disease  research  /  210 


XII 


ADVISORY  COMMITTEES  IN  AGRICULTURE 


Staff  members  in  the  College  of  Agriculture  have  long  enjoyed  and  profited  by  close 
contact  with  farm  and  rural  people  throughout  the  state.   In  the  early  years  there 
was  a  general  advisory  committee  for  the  experiment  station,  and  there  were  a  few 
other  committees  concerned  with  specific  lines  of  work  for  which  appropriations  had 
been  made  by  the  General  Assembly.   The  members  were  selected  by  specified  agricul- 
tural societies  in  the  state.   In  August,  1921,  the  Board  of  Trustees  approved  a  plan 
recommended  by  Dean  Davenport  that  provided  for  an  advisory  committee  in  each  depart- 
ment.  Specifically  the  plan  stated: 

1.  That  advisory  committees  be  provided  for  the  following  lines  of  work: 
soils,  farm  crops,  animal  husbandry,  dairy  husbandry,  horticulture,  flori- 
culture, farm  mechanics,  and  farm  organization  and  management. 

2.  That  one  member  be  selected  from  each  of  the  above  advisory  committees  to 
constitute  an  advisory  committee  for  the  College  of  Agriculture  as  a  whole. 

3.  That  these  committees  be  composed  of  Illinois  farmers  recommended  by  the 
President  of  the  University  and  by  the  Board  of  Trustees  from  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  agricultural  association  or  associations  most  representative  of 
the  interests  involved. 

4.  That  the  membership  of  the  various  committees  consist  of  from  three  to  five. 

5.  That  all  nominations  be  made  anew  annually.   The  present  plan  provides  for 
only  one  vacancy  each  year,  but  inasmuch  as  some  advisory  committees  should 
be  composed  of  members  from  more  than  one  association,  it  would  seem  wise 
to  institute  a  plan  which  would  arouse  the  interest  of  each  association  at 
least  once  every  year. 

6.  That  the  head  of  the  department  with  which  the  advisory  committee  is  to  ren- 
der service  be  responsible  for  making  these  nominations,  transmitting  them 
through  the  office  of  the  Dean  and  Director  at  the  time  of  recommendations 
for  annual  appointments,  and  that  service  begin  on  September  1,  the  same  as 
with  members  of  the  faculty. 

The  first  committees  appointed  under  this  plan,  to  serve  until  September  1,  1922, 
were  as  follows: 

Agronomy 

Soils: 

Ralph  Allen,  Delavan 
Frank  I.  Mann,  Gilman 
A.N.  Abbott,  Morrison 
G.F.  Tullock,  Rockford 

Farm  Crops : 

Harvey  J.  Sconce,  Sidell 
Eugene  Funk,  Bloomington 
William  Webb,  Joliet 
Charles  Rowe,  Jacksonville 
Harry  Winter,  Winona 


Animal   Husbandry 

Joseph  R.  Fulkerson,  Jerseyville 
William  S.  Corsa,  Whitehall 
A. A.  Armstrong,  Camargo 
A.F.  Rising,  Champaign 
J.G.  Imboden,  Decatur 

Dairy  Husbandry 

George  A.  Fox,  Sycamore 

Herman  J.  Schultz,  Shipman 

Fred  Shuster,  Springfield 

Dr.  N.W.  Hepburn,  Peoria 

Senator  Rodney  B.  Swift,  Lake  Forest 

Farm  Organization   and  Management 

Frank  I.  Mann,  Gilman 
Frank  H.  McKelvey,  Springfield 
Henry  H.  Parke,  Genoa 
Charles  A.  Ewing,  Decatur 
Harvey  J.  Sconce,  Sidell 

Farm  Mechanics 

J.V.  Stevenson,  Streator 

J. P.  Stout,  Chatham 

E.L.  Gillham,  Edwardsville 

Floriculture 

Joseph  Kohout,  Libertyville 
Albert  T.  Hey,  Maywood 
Willis  N.  Rudd,  Morgan  Park 
W.J.  Hembreiker,  Springfield 
F.L.  Washburn,  Bloomington 

Horticulture 

W.S.  Perrine,  Centralia 
A.L.  McClay,  Nillview 
H.M.  Dunlap,  Savoy 
G.A.  Bryant,  Princeton 
August  Geweke,  Des  Plaines 

The  same  general  plan  has  been  followed  ever  since, 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


A  visitor  coming  to  the  campus  for  the  first  time  might  be  temporarily  confused  if 
he  asked  someone  how  to  find  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Some  change  in 
viewpoint  is  required  to  think  of  the  station  as  simply  an  organized  group  of  re- 
search workers  scattered  through  many  buildings  and  laboratories. 

This  research  organization,  with  its  field  and  laboratory  facilities,  its  staff, 
and  its  research,  is  under  the  general  administration  of  a  Director,  and  includes 
thirteen  research  units:  Agricultural  Economics,  Agricultural  Engineering,  Agronomy, 
Animal  Science,  Dairy  Science,  Dixon  Springs  Agricultural  Center,  Entomology,  Food 
Science,  Forestry,  Horticulture,  Human  Resources  and  Family  Studies,  Plant  Pathology, 
and  Veterinary  Medicine  Research. 

The  station  staff  numbers  about  600  individuals,  many  of  whom  are  on  part-time 
appointment  while  pursuing  graduate  study.  Most  of  the  full-time  staff  people  hold 
joint  appointments  and  are  responsible  for  some  teaching  as  well  as  for  research. 

In  the  opening  paragraph  of  the  Experiment  Station  Report  for  the  biennium  1966- 
1968,  Director  M.B.  Russell  commented  as  follows: 

The  Hatch  Act  of  1887  marked  the  beginning  of  a  national  agricultural  re- 
search program  which  has  catalyzed  a  revolution  in  United  States  agricul- 
ture. Public  investment  in  agricultural  research  has  given  a  very  high  re- 
turn to  the  nation,  and  benefits  to  the  total  society  greatly  exceed  the 
gains  realized  by  farmers  and  farm  families  alone.  Through  improved  tech- 
nology, based  on  research,  modern  U.S.  agriculture  has  become  highly  ef- 
ficient. Labor  productivity  in  food  production  has  increased  more  than  400 
percent  since  1920,  and  has  released  8.5  million  workers  from  farming  for 
employment  in  other  sectors  of  the  economy.  At  the  same  time  the  percent- 
age of  disposable  income  expended  for  food  has  declined  below  18  percent-- 
well  under  that  of  any  other  nation.  In  addition,  exports  representing 
about  15  percent  of  our  agricultural  production  are  a  major  item  of  world 
trade,  and  constitute  a  key  factor  in  bolstering  the  nation's  internation- 
al monetary  position. 

Teaching  was  specifically  mentioned  both  in  the  Morrill  Act  passed  by  Congress 
in  1862  and  in  Illinois  legislation  which  established  the  Illinois  Industrial  Uni- 
versity (renamed  the  University  of  Illinois  in  1885) ,  but  research  was  not  mentioned 
or  implied  in  either.  Not  until  passage  of  the  Hatch  Act  of  1887  was  there  legisla- 
tive support  for  Ma  department  at  each  Land -Grant  college  to  be  known  and  designated 
as  an  Agricultural  Experiment  Station."  The  Hatch  Act  authorized  an  annual  alloca- 
tion of  $15,000  to  each  experiment  station  for  the  purpose  of  agricultural  research. 
The  Illinois  Station  was  established  one  year  later,  to  be  under  the  supervision  of 
a  Board  of  Direction  of  which  George  E.  Morrow  was  the  first  president.  In  1896,  the 
Board  of  Trustees  of  the  University  terminated  the  existence  of  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tion and  named  Eugene  Davenport  Director  of  the  Experiment  Station  in  addition  to 
his  existing  duties  as  Dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture. 

Federal  support  of  agricultural  research  was  increased  in  1906  by  passage  of 
the  Adams  Act  providing  another  $15,000  annually;  in  1925  by  passage  of  the  Purnell 


Act  providing  $60,000  annually;  in  1935  by  passage  of  the  Bankhead -Jones  Act  provid- 
ing research  funds  according  to  a  formula  based  on  the  distribution  of  rural  popula- 
tion; and  in  1946  by  the  Research  and  Marketing  Act  which  stressed  marketing  research 
and  provided  for  regional  research  involving  two  or  more  states.  In  1955  the  fore- 
going acts  were  combined  into  an  amended  Hatch  Act  which  retained  the  emphasis  on 
marketing  research,  and  provided  that  any  increases  above  the  1955  level  must  be 
matched  within  each  state  by  nonfederal  funds.  Currently,  about  one-third  of  the 
total  funds  available  for  research  come  from  federal  sources. 

Reporting  Research  Results 

A  major  responsibility  of  the  staff  at  any  state  experiment  station  is  to  make 
research  findings  available  to  an  interested  public.  Some  results  can  be  reported 
orally  at  public  meetings  or  through  personal  conferences  and  by  press  releases  and 
radio  programs,  but  far  more  important  is  the  publication  of  printed  reports.  Publi- 
cations of  the  Illinois  Station  include  bulletins,  circulars,  special  publications, 
station  reports,  soil  reports,  and  numerous  departmental  series,  ranging  in  size  from 
4  pages  to  200  or  more.  The  Illinois  Station  has  a  quarterly  magazine,  "Illinois 
Research. " 

In  recent  years,  many  more  pages  of  research  material  have  appeared  in  scien- 
tific journals  than  in  station  publications.  During  the  1974-76  biennium,  research 
articles  published  by  individual  staff  members  in  various  scientific  journals  num- 
bered more  than  700,  not  counting  many  short  abstracts.  Station  bulletins  are  often 
complete  reports  of  what  was  done,  the  research  methods  used,  and  the  technical  find- 
ings. Circulars,  which  at  one  time  were  published  by  the  Station,  are  now  likely  to 
be  publications  in  popular  form  of  the  Cooperative  Extension  Service,  giving  con- 
densed summaries  of  research  results,  together  with  the  "what,  why,  when,  and  how" 
of  their  application  under  farm  or  other  practical  conditions. 

By  the  end  of  1977  the  Illinois  Station  had  published  more  than  750  bulletins, 
and  100  soil  reports,  and  provided  the  research  backup  for  more  than  1,150  circulars. 


AGRICULTURAL  OUTLOOK  INFORMATION 


What  was  to  become  a  major  agricultural  extension  project  began  in  1927  with  the  pub- 
lication of  a  mimeographed  8-page  report  entitled  "The  Agricultural  Outlook  for  Illi- 
nois in  1927."  An  introductory  paragraph  by  Dean  H.W.  Mumford  explained  that  it  was 
the  first  such  attempt  by  the  College,  and  indicated  that  the  statement  "was  based  on 
the  best  information  available  regarding  farming  and  marketing  conditions  that  are 
likely  to  affect  the  production  and  sale  of  Illinois  farm  products  in  1927."   It  re- 
flected in  part  the  1927  Agricultural  Outlook  for  the  United  States  issued  by  the  U.Si, 
Department  of  Agriculture,  and  contained  short  sections  on  the  general  business  sit- 
uation, corn,  oats,  barley,  wheat,  hay,  horses,  hogs,  beef  cattle,  dairy,  sheep,  poul- 
try, apples,  peaches,  small  fruits,  grapes,  and  vegetables. 

Similar  reports  were  issued  in  1928,  lOpages;  1929,  24  pages;  and  1930,  28  pages. 
The  1929  report,  except  for  the  cover,  was  reproduced  on  paper  made  from  cornstalks 
grown  in  fields  in  Illinois. 

Beginning  in  1931,  and  continuing  for  ten  years,  the  report  was  entitled  "Agri- 
cultural Outlook,"  and  was  issued  in  the  regular  Circular  series,  each  year's  issue 
containing  24  to  40  pages.   After  1940  the  title  varied,  and  the  number  of  pages  dropped 
to  8  or  6.   Sample  titles  were  "Illinois  Farm  Outlook,"  "Wartime  Livestock  Outlook 
for  1943,"  "Postwar  Problems  Facing  Agriculture  and  Business,"  "Illinois  Farm  and 
Home  Outlook,"  and  "What's  Ahead  for  Illinois  Farmers  in  1948." 

The  main  purpose  of  the  outlook  reports  was  to  provide  timely  information  that 
would  assist  farmers  in  shaping  their  plans  for  the  year  ahead  in  respect  to  such 
matters  as  seeding  winter  wheat,  feeding  beef  cattle  and  sheep,  and  hog  production. 
Nearly  all  counties  cooperated  in  holding  district  and  county  outlook  meetings,  at 
which  total  attendance  ranged  from  about  5,000  to  as  high  as  12,000  in  some  years. 

A  weekly  farmers'  outlook  and  policy  letter  initiated  during  World  War  II  has 
been  widely  used  by  newspapers  and  radio  stations  throughout  the  state  to  bring  sig- 
nificant and  timely  information  to  the  attention  of  farmers  at  frequent  intervals. 
Staff  members  who  carried  major  responsibility  for  the  outlook  project  up  to  1975  in- 
clude H.C.M.  Case,  R.R.  Hudelson,  P.E.  Johnston,  L.J.  Norton,  E.M.  Hughes,  L.F.  Stice, 
and  L.H.  Simerl .   Extension  specialists  from  other  departments  have  assisted  with 
district  and  county  meetings. 


AGRICULTURE  LIBRARY 


No  library  facilities  were  specifically  assigned  to  agriculture  until  1912,  when  a 
reading  room  for  students  was  opened  in  Room  127  of  what  is  now  Davenport  Hall.   The 
collection  consisted  of  a  few  books,  experiment  station  publications,  and  farm  papers. 
No  librarian  was  provided,  and  the  students  managed  the  room  and  the  publications  for 
themselves.   Two  years  later  the  university  library  cooperated  by  transferring  sever- 
al hundred  volumes  of  agricultural  books  from  the  general  library.   Other  library 
books  that  had  been  shelved  in  departmental  offices  of  the  College  of  Agriculture 
were  brought  together  and  added  to  this  collection. 

The  first  professional  librarian  to  be  placed  in  charge  was  George  A.  Deveneau, 
appointed  November  26,  1915,  as  Library  Assistant  in  Agriculture.   A  study  room  for 
upperclassmen  and  faculty  was  added  in  1917.   Following  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Deve- 
neau, Mary  G.  Burwash,  who  had  been  in  the  cataloguing  division  of  the  general  li- 
brary, was  transferred  to  the  Agriculture  Library  on  October  1,  1918.   She  held  the 
position  until  shortly  before  her  death  in  January,  1948. 

In  1924  the  library  was  moved  to  the  south  end  of  the  second  floor  of  Mumford 
Hall  (at  that  time  called  New  Agriculture  Building).   The  collection  then  consisted 
of  about  20,000  volumes.   With  construction  of  additional  stack  space,  and  expansion 
into  two  rooms  on  the  first  floor,  the  total  capacity  was  increased  to  about  80,000 
volumes. 

On  June  1,  1948,  D.A.  Brown  was  named  Agriculture  Librarian  and  served  until  his 
retirement  on  September  1,  1972.   He  was  succeeded  on  August  21,  1973,  by  John  W. 
Beecher. 


AGRONOMY  RESEARCH  CENTERS 


In  addition  to  the  Morrow  Plots  and  the  extensive  research  work  under  way  on  the 
Agronomy  South  Farm  at  Urbana,  the  Agronomy  Department  operates  five  research  centers 
located  at  DeKalb,  Elwood,  Brownstown,  Carbondale,  and  Dixon  Springs.   Soil  and  crop 
research  is  also  being  conducted  at  six  other  locations  where  facilities  are  less  ex- 
tensive and  less  well  developed.   Designated  as  research  fields,  these  are  located  at 
Dixon,  Aledo,  Kewanee,  Carthage,  Hartsburg,  and  Toledo. 

This  program  represents  a  significant  change  from  earlier  years  when  as  many  as 
50  soil  experiment  fields  were  being  operated  in  43  different  counties.   A  natural 
question  is  "Why  so  many  fields?";  and  a  related  one,  "If  50  fields  then,  why  no  more 
than  12  now?"  One  answer  to  the  first  question  is  found  in  the  wide  variation  in 
soils  within  the  state.   Experiments  conducted  on  the  black  prairie  soils  of  central 
Illinois  cannot  provide  the  information  needed  for  the  proper  treatment  of  the  light- 
colored  claypan  soils  of  southern  Illinois,  or  for  the  unique  younger  soils  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  state. 

Another  important  reason  for  having  experiment  fields  in  various  parts  of  the 
state  is  the  wide  variation  in  climate.   Average  annual  precipitation  in  much  of 
northern  Illinois  is  only  30  inches,  while  the  average  at  Anna  in  Union  County  is 
nearly  48  inches.   Differences  in  extremes  are  much  greater.   Pontiac  had  only  16 
inches  in  1887,  and  Carbondale  had  74  inches  as  recently  as  1945.   Similarly,  the 
number  of  frost- free  days  per  year  varies  from  about  160  in  northern  Illinois  to 
over  200  in  the  south  end  of  the  state. 

In  the  early  years,  before  the  automobile  and  paved  roads,  more  fields  at  widely 
scattered  locations  were  needed  so  that  farmers  might  visit  them  easily  and  see  the 
results  of  various  soil  treatments  and  variety  trials.   Demonstrations  have  provided 
one  of  the  most  important  benefits  derived  from  the  fields.   The  number  of  visitors 
sometimes  exceeds  5,000  annually  at  a  single  field. 

All  of  the  early  fields  were  established  through  the  interest  and  cooperation 
of  the  local  people.   A  few  fields  were  donated  by  their  owners:   the  Carlinville 
field  was  donated  by  Blackburn  College,  and  the  Elizabethtown  field  was  given  by  R.A. 
Ledbetter.   Several  were  made  available  on  the  basis  of  long-term  leases.   But  most 
were  purchased  by  funds  donated  in  small  amounts  by  100  or  more  individuals  in  the 
area,  and  deeded  to  the  university. 

As  an  example  of  procedures  followed  in  the  early  years ,   the  following  account 
of  the  field  at  Fairfield  in  Wayne  County,  established  in  1905  and  discontinued  in 
1923,  is  taken  from  Bulletin  273,  "The  Illinois  Soil  Experiment  Fields." 

Location.   About  one  mile  northwest  of  Fairfield  on  the  Rinard  and  Porter  farms. 
The  E.  1/2  of  the  W.  1/2  of  the  N.W.  1/4  and  the  W.  1/2  of  the  W.  1/2  of  the 
N.E.  1/4,  all  in  Sec.  36,  Twp.  1  S.,  R.  7  E.  of  the  3d  P.M. 

Description.   The  field  consisted  of  40  acres  of  light-colored  upland  soil  of 
strong  acidity.   The  soil  was  described  as  the  typical  prairie  soil  of  southern 
Illinois  and  probably  consisted  of  Gray  silt  loam  on  Tight  Clay.   The  land  was 
practically  level.   Half  of  it  was  tile-drained,  but  due  to  the  impervious  nature 


of  the  subsoil,  drainage  over  all  of  the  field  was  rather  poor.   The  field  was 
divided  into  four  series  of  36  fifth-acre  plots.   Each  series  was  further  divid- 
ed into  two  parts;  one  containing  the  plots  numbered  1  to  18,  and  the  other  from 
21  to  38. 

History.  The  Fairfield  field  was  leased  from  Mr.  John  Rinard  and  Mr.  G.  Porter. 
As  far  as  is  known,  the  land  had  not  previously  received  fertilizer  treatment  of 
any  kind. 

Cropping  and  Soil  Treatment.   The  Fairfield  field  was  used  primarily  for  the  in- 
vestigation of  crop  problems.   A  uniform  rotation,  however,  was  practiced  on  the 
field,  and  certain  plots  were  maintained  with  various  soil  treatments.   The  ro- 
tation originally  practiced  was  corn,  cowpeas,  wheat,  and  clover  on  both  tiled 
and  untiled  land.   During  the  later  years  it  was  changed  to  corn,  soybeans, 
wheat,  and  sweet  clover.   All  plots  ending  in  the  numbers  3,  6  and  9  were  han- 
dled as  grain  system  plots,  and  received  crop  residues.   All  plots  ending  in 
numbers  10,  13,  and  16,  or  30,  33,  and  36  were  handled  as  livestock  plots  and 
received  farm  manure.   All  plots  except  those  ending  in  numbers  9  and  0  received 
applications  of  limestone  and  rock  phosphate. 

In  addition  to  the  above  described  soil  treatments,  potassium  compounds  were  ap- 
plied in  two  forms;  namely,  kainit  and  sulfate.   These  materials  were  applied 
lengthwise  of  all  series  in  such  a  manner  that  a  4-rod  strip  in  the  middle  re- 
ceived kainit  at  an  annual  acre  rate  of  150  pounds,  and  a  2-rod  strip  on  either 
side  of  the  kainit  received  potassium  sulfate  at  the  annual  acre  rate  of  50 
pounds.   These  treatments  continued  from  1907  to  1915. 

Current  research  at  the  centers  is  directed  toward  two  major  objectives:   learn- 
ing more  about  the  soils,  crops,  and  environment  as  a  long-time  continuing  effort, 
and  solving  current  agronomic  problems.   Applied  research  at  the  centers  therefore 
takes  many  forms.   Evaluating  fertilizers  in  terms  of  what  to  use  and  how  much  is  a 
continuing  process  as  new  varieties  and  new  cropping  practices  are  developed.   Many 
production  factors,  such  as  planting  dates,  seeding  rates,  distance  between  rows,  and 
planting  patterns,  are  constantly  being  studied  and  evaluated,  especially  as  they  in- 
teract with  one  another,  and  as  they  relate  to  the  efficient  production  of  needed 
food,  feed,  and  fiber. 


ALLOWABLE  LOADS  FOR  ANCHOR  BOLTS  IN  CONCRETE 


Buildings  are  commonly  held  to  their  foundations  by  some  sort  of  bolt  or  anchor  that 
is  embedded  in  the  concrete  of  the  foundation.  Such  anchorages  are  normally  subject 
to  two  types  of  load:   tensile  and  shear.  A  tensile  load  tends  to  pull  the  bolt  ver- 
tically from  the  surface  of  the  foundation;  whereas  a  shear  load  is  exerted  perpen- 
dicular to  the  length  of  the  bolt. 

To  do  an  effective  and  accurate  job  of  designing  anchorage  systems,  one  must 
know  the  strength  of  the  bolt  with  respect  to  each  type  of  load,  and  also  the 
strength  of  the  connection  between  the  bolt  and  the  concrete.  Information  on  the 
strength  of  bolts  has  long  been  available,  but  information  on  the  strength  of  the 
connection  between  bolt  and  concrete  has  been  sketchy.  J.O.  Curtis  and  L.D.  Nagreski 
in  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Engineering  conducted  a  series  of  tests  to  estab- 
lish safe  allowable  loads  for  steel  anchor  bolts  of  1/2  inch,  5/8  inch,  and  3/4  inch 
diameter  under  various  conditions  of  embedment  in  concrete. 

Size  of  bolt  does  not  affect  the  strength  of  the  connection,  but  unless  the 
bolt  will  withstand  as  much  load  as  the  connection,  it  will  break  before  the  connec- 
tion fails.  Half-inch  bolts  will  support  tensile  loads  up  to  about  3,300  pounds,  5/8- 
inch  bolts  6,200  pounds,  and  3/4-inch  bolts  9,500  pounds. 

Using  a  safety  factor  of  2 ,  it  was  found  that  allowable  tensile  loads  increased 
from  about  3,500  pounds  for  3-inch  embedment  in  concrete,  to  nearly  double  that  load 
if  embedded  4  inches.  Allowable  shear  loads  were  1,000  pounds  if  embedded  3  or  more 
inches  and  2  inches  from  the  loaded  edge,  and  about  1,800  pounds  if  embedded  3  inches 
from  the  loaded  edge. 


AMINO  ACID  REQUIREMENTS  OF  SWINE  AND  POULTRY 


Early  research  on  the  protein  requirements  of  the  chick,  the  young  pig,  and  labora- 
tory animals  such  as  the  white  rat  was  crude  by  comparison  with  current  methods,  but 
did  result  in  determining  the  approximate  protein  levels  needed  for  growth.  Require- 
ments were  expressed  as  the  percentage  of  protein  in  the  ration,  using  Kjeldahl  N  x 
6.25  as  the  measure  of  protein. 

Later,  after  W.C.  Rose  and  associates  had  established  the  relative  importance 
of  certain  amino  acids  in  the  diet  as  precursors  of  body  protein,  investigators  were 
able  to  assess  the  value  of  various  protein  mixtures  in  terms  of  their  content  of 
specific  amino  acids.  Even  so,  amino  acid  analysis  was  a  long  and  tedious  process. 
Not  until  it  became  possible  to  synthesize  individual  amino  acids  at  a  cost  which 
permitted  their  inclusion  in  pure  form  in  the  diets  of  young  animals  could  research- 
ers begin  to  assess  nutritional  requirements  with  accuracy. 

At  a  symposium  on  protein  nutrition  and  metabolism,  held  at  the  University  of 
Illinois  in  October,  1963,  Richard  H.  Barnes,  then  dean  of  the  Graduate  School  of 
Nutrition  at  Cornell  University,  said: 

"I  am  certain  that  no  institution  in  the  world  can  surpass  the  extensive  studies  of 
nutritional  interrelationships  in  different  animal  species  that  have  been  conducted 
on  the  campus  of  the  University  of  Illinois. . .Up  to  1932  many  amino  acids  had  been 
identified,  but  only  tryptophane,  lysine,  histidine,  and  either  methionine,  cystine, 
or  both  had  been  shown  to  be  indispensable  for  the  growing  rat.  The  major  break- 
through in  establishing  the  amino  acid  requirements  of  animals  came  in  1935  when 
McCoy,  Meyer,  and  Rose  published  another  in  their  series  of  papers  on  feeding  ex- 
periments with  mixtures  of  highly  purified  amino  acids,  in  which  they  discussed  the 
"isolation  and  identification  of  a  new  essential  amino  acid."  The  amino  acid  was, 
of  course,  threonine,  and  for  the  first  time  a  relatively  good  growth  rate  was  ob- 
tained in  rats  fed  amino  acids  but  no  protein. . .Since  the  breakthrough  in  1935  when 
threonine  was  isolated  and  identified,  many  laboratories  have  engaged  in  studies  with 
rats,  man,  and  other  animal  species,  using  pure  amino  acid  mixtures  in  the  diet.  Rat 
studies  have  been  particularly  extensive.  A  major  portion  of  this  work  has  been  done 
at  the  University  of  Illinois." 

H.M.  Scott  and  associates  (W.A.  Glista,  W.F.  Dean,  R.L.  Huston,  J.G.  Klain,  S.P, 
Netke,  R.E.  Smith,  D.H.  Baker,  R.A.  Zimmerman)  tackled  the  problem  of  establishing 
a  standard  reference  diet,  composed  of  crystalline  amino  acids  plus  corn  oil,  corn 
starch,  vitamins,  and  minerals,  that  would  enable  the  young  chick  to  grow  fully  as 
well  as  when  fed  a  corn-soybean  diet.  Eventually  they  were  able  to  formulate  such  a 
diet  that  not  only  promoted  excellent  growth  but  also  resulted  in  much  improved  ef- 
ficiency of  gain. 

Initially,  amino-acid  adequacy  of  the  diets  used  was  measured  by  daily  nitrogen 
balance  in  the  chick.  The  diet,  in  the  form  of  tablets,  was  force-fed  six  times  a 
day.  When  a  particular  amino  acid  was  under  study,  it  was  omitted  from  the  tablets 
and  administered  in  solution,  by  syringe,  at  each  feeding.  The  dose  received  by  each 
chick  could  thus  be  varied  as  desired,  using  levels  above  and  below  the  estimated 


10 


requirement  level.   The  reference  standard  diet,  as  developed  and  used  for  four  years 
prior  to  1972,  was  as  follows: 


L-arginine,  HC1 

1.21 

L-histidine,  HC1.H  0 
L-lysine,  HC1 

0.41 

1.19 

L-tyrosine 

0.45 

L-tryptophan 

0.15 

L-phenyl alanine 

0.50 

DL-methionine 

0.35 

L-cystine 

0.35 

L-threonine 

0.65 

L-leucine 

1.20 

L-isoleucine 

0.60 

L-valine 

0.82 

Glycine 

1.20 

L-proline 

0.20 

L-glutamic  acid 

10.00 

Corn  oil 

15.00 

Salt  mixture 

5.37 

Cellulose 

3.00 

NaHC03 

Choline  chloride 

1.00 

0.20 

Vitamins 

+ 

Ethoxyquin  (125  mg./kg.) 

+ 

Corn  starch 

56.15 

100.00 

This  diet  has  been  used  to  study  quantitative  amino  acid  interrelationships,  as 
well  as  requirements  under  various  environmental  and  dietary  conditions.  Also,  it 
has  become  a  standard  reference  diet  for  studies  of  amino  acid  availability  in  foods 
and  feeds,  and  for  vitamin  and  mineral  requirement  assays. 

Since  it  is  not  economically  feasible  to  feed  swine  on  rations  which  contain  a 
protein  fraction  made  up  entirely  of  crystalline  amino  acids,  the  practical  approach 
has  been  to  use  corn-soybean  mixtures  analyzed  for  amino  acid  content,  and  to  supple- 
ment these  with  varied  levels  of  amino  acids  in  order  to  determine  the  minimum  level 
for  satisfactory  performance.  This  procedure  enabled  D.E.  Becker  and  co-workers  (D.H. 
Baker,  A.H.  Jensen,  B.G.  Harmon)  to  arrive  at  recommended  amino  acid  allowances  for 
growing  and  finishing  swine  as  a  percentage  of  the  ration. 


Arginine 

Histidine 

Isoleucine 

Leucine 

Lysine 

Methionine 

Phenylalanine 

Threonine 

Tryptophan 

Valine 

A  slightly  different  approach  was  taken  by  D.H.  Baker  and  R.H.  Rippel  in  estab- 
lishing the  requirements  for  gestation  and  lactation  in  the  sow,  because  hand  feeding 


Starter, 

Gi 

•ower , 

Finisher, 

10-30  lb. 

30- 

•120  lb. 

130  lb.  to  market  wt. 

.37 

.25 

.15 

.34 

.23 

.14 

.76 

.52 

.35 

.84 

.67 

.40 

.86 

.74 

.55 

.73 

.50 

.30 

.79 

.54 

.32 

.66 

.45 

.27 

.18 

.12 

.07 

.67 

.46 

.28 

11 


rather  than  ad  libitum   feeding  is  commonly  practiced  under  commercial  conditions. 
Experimental  studies  extending  over  about  ten  years  prior  to  1970  established  the 
fact  that  a  pregnant  gilt  or  sow  required  only  about  half  the  daily  protein  intake 
that  was  considered  standard  in  1960.   This  led  to  expressing  the  amino  acid  require- 
ments on  the  basis  of  grams  per  head  per  day  instead  of  as  a  percentage  of  the  ration 


Gestatior 

i, 

Lactation, 

feed  intake 

feed  intake 

2  kg.  dai 

iy 

4  kg.  daily 

grams 

per 

head  per  day 

Arginine 

6.8 

13.6 

Histidine 

3.1 

10.4 

Isoleucine 

6.7 

26.8 

Leucine 

10.2 

39.6 

Lysine 

7.6 

32.4 

Methionine  and  systine 

5.2 

14.4 

Phenylalanine  and  tyrosine 

12.4 

40.0 

Threonine 

6.3 

20.4 

Tryptophan 

1.3 

5.2 

Valine 

8.4 

27.2 

12 


ANAPLASMOSIS 


Anaplasmosis  is  an  infectious  and  transmissible  disease  of  cattle  manifested  by  pro- 
gressive anemia  associated  with  the  presence  of  erythrocytic  bodies  designated  as 
Anaplasma  marginale.      It  is  fairly  widespread  in  the  United  States  and  has  been  rec- 
ognized in  40  of  the  50  states. 

Studies  of  Anaplasma   made  by  Miodrag  Ristic  of  the  College  of  Veterinary  Medi- 
cine and  the  Experiment  Station  indicate  that  it  occupies  a  position  intermediate 
between  the  smallest  bacteria  and  the  filtrable  viruses  and  suggest  that  some  of  its 
biologic  properties,  such  as  relative  resistance  to  heat  and  to  destruction  by  sonic 
oscillation,  may  be  due  to  a  protective  envelope  observed  when  Initial  anaplasmal  bod- 
ies are  examined  under  an  electron  miscroscope. 

Among  the  more  important  vectors  are  horseflies,  stable  flies,  horn  flies,  mos- 
quitos,  lice,  and  several  species  of  ticks. 

A  live  vaccine  developed  by  Dr.  Ristic  has  been  used  successfully  in  Mexico  and 
several  other  Latin  American  countries  to  produce  immunity  in  cattle,  but  by  1973 
still  had  not  been  approved  by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  for  use  in  the 
United  States. 

A  detailed  report  on  the  nature  of  Anaplasma   was  made  by  Dr.  Ristic  in  Advances 
in  Veterinary  Science,    6:111-192  (1960). 


13 


ANTIBIOTIC  DRUGS  AND  THEIR  RESIDUES 


By  the  ear'y  1970' s  more  than  half  of  the  antibiotics  produced  in  the  United  States 
were  used  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  nearly  80  percent  of  the  meat  and  meat  prod- 
ucts produced  were  derived  from  animals  that  have  received  drugs  which  require  with- 
drawal times.   Those  most  commonly  used  in  animal  production  included  streptomycin, 
dehydrostreptomycin,  neomysin,  tylosin,  novobiocin,  oleandomycin,  bacitracin,  ery- 
thromycin, spiramycin,  polymyxin  B,  various  forms  of  penicillin  and  tetracyclines, 
and  numerous  combinations  thereof .   in  1971  usage,  metabolic  and  excretion  patterns, 
untoward  effects,  and  related  hazards  were  summarized  by  William  G.  Huber  of  the 
College  of  Veterinary  Medicine  and  the  Experiment  Station  in  Advances  in  Veterinary 
Science  and  Comparative  Medicine,    15;  101-132. 

The  prevalence  of  antibacterial  drug  residues  in  animals  at  time  of  slaughter 
was  determined  for  more  than  5,000  animals  in  1969.   Tissues,  urine,  or  feces  were 
collected  from  swine,  sheep,  veal  calves,  beef  cattle,  and  poultry  which  are  subject- 
ed  to  federal  or  state  meat  inspection  at  slaughterhouses  in  the  Midwest.   A  micro- 
biologic Bacillus   suhtilis   disc-assay  method  was  used  to  screen  for  the  presence  of 
antibacterial  substances  and  the  disc-assay  method  for  fluid  milk  was  modified  to 
test  urine,  feces,  and  tissues. 

Of  eight  groups  of  swine  totaling  1,381  animals,  27  percent  had  antibacterial 
substances  of  which  10  percent  had  penicillin  residues.  Beef  cattle  had  the  lowest 
prevalence  of  antibiotic  residues  among  the  domestic  animals  tested;  of  five  groups 
totaling  580  animals,  9  percent  gave  positive  findings,  and  of  those  2  percent  were 
found  to  have  penicillin. 

Urine  samples  from  six  groups  of  veal  calves  totaling  788  animals,  showed  17 
percent  to  have  antibacterial  residues,  of  which  7  percent  gave  penicillinase  posi- 
tive tests.   Of  four  groups  of  328  market  lambs,  21  percent  contained  antibacterial 
substances,  and  4  percent  were  positive  for  penicillin  residues.   Among  four  groups 
of  chickens  totaling  798  laying  hens  and  128  broilers,  20  percent  were  found  to  have 
antibacterial  substances,  with  6  percent  positive  for  penicillin. 

The  wide  variation  in  the  prevalence  of  residues  among  different  species  sug- 
gests that  livestock  producers  in  general  use  antibiotics  wisely  and  comply  with  the 
legal  withdrawal  times,  but  that  some  others  do  not.   Many  violators  are  not  appre- 
hended because  available  residue  detection  procedures  are  not  applied;  nor  are  the 
results  followed  up  by  state  and  federal  meat  inspection  services. 

The  prevalence  of  antibiotic  residues  in  tissues  and  body  fluids  of  domestic 
animals  exceeds  that  reported  for  milk  in  the  United  States  during  the  1950's  before 
a  successful  milk-monitoring  program  was  established.  Since  then,  the  prevalence  of 
antibiotic-adulterated  milk  has  dropped  from  11  percent  to  less  than  0.5  percent. 


14 


ANTIBIOTIC  RESEARCH 


Antibiotic  research  at  the  Illinois  Station  began  in  1942  under  a  cooperative  program 
which  provided  financial  support  from  four  pharmaceutical  companies --Abbott  Laborato- 
ries, Eli  Lilly  £,   Company,  Parke  Davis  §  Company,  and  the  Upjohn  Company.   At  first 
the  chemical  and  biochemical  studies  were  under  the  direction  of  H.E.  Carter  in  the 
Department  of  Chemistry  and  Chemical  Engineering.   The  biological  phase  was  started 
under  H.W.  Anderson,  plant  pathologist  in  the  Department  of  Horticulture,  later  to  be 
joined  by  H.H.  Thornberry.   In  1946,  the  responsibility  for  this  work  was  shifted  to 
David  Gottlieb,  and  support  came  from  the  National  Science  Foundation  and  the  Nation- 
al Institutes  of  Health.   When  the  Department  of  Plant  Pathology  was  established  in 
1955,  antibiotic  research  and  the  personnel  connected  with  it  were  transferred  to  the 
new  department. 

Early  studies  were  concerned  with  methods  of  improving  the  yields  of  streptomy- 
cin and  the  biochemistry  of  the  fermentation  involved  in  its  production.   Later  the 
emphasis  shifted  to  a  search  for  new  antibiotics.   Those  found  included  chlorampheni- 
col (1948),  endomycin  (1951),  levomycin  (1945),  filipin  (1955),  and  tetrin  (1960). 
All  but  chloramphenicol  are  antifungal  agents. 

A  long  series  of  studies  was  carried  out  on  the  biosynthesis  of  chloramphenicol. 
Later  studies,  some  of  which  are  still  under  way,  concerned  the  mode  of  action  of  os- 
con,  filipin,  tetrin,  patulim,  flavensomycin,  griseofulvin,  pyrrolnitrin,  and  a  syn- 
thetic compound,  thiobendazole. 

As  early  as  1946,  H.W.  Anderson  and  I.  Nienow  had  shown  that  streptomycin  could 
be  absorbed  by  the  roots  of  wheat  and  soybean  plants  and  could  then  move  through  the 
rest  of  the  plant.   Other  direct  applications  of  antibiotics  in  the  control  of  plant 
diseases  were  undertaken  later  with  actidione,  vancomycin,  endomycin,  and  filipin. 
The  toxicities  of  these  compounds  in  plants  were  determined,  but  only  partial  control 
of  certain  diseases  was  obtained. 

Another  phase  of  the  research  dealt  with  the  role  of  antibiotics  in  soil.  It  was 
long  believed  that  antibiotics  were  produced  naturally  in  soil,  and  were  important  in 
controlling  the  soil  microflora  because  of  differential  effects  on  these  microbes. 
Intensive  studies  failed  to  support  this  concept  for  streptomycin,  aureomycin,  terra- 
mycin,  cycloheximide  clavacin,  glutoxin,  Chloromycetin,  and  others.   They  were  never 
found  in  normal  soil  in  the  field,  or  when  untreated  soils  were  infested  by  laborato- 
ry procedures.   An  antibiotic  was  sometimes  found,  however,  after  the  organism  which 
produced  it  in  culture  had  been  placed  in  soil  which  had  been  sterilized  or  to  which 
various  nutrients  had  been  added  at  high  concentrations. 

The  synthesis  of  antibiotics  in  amounts  sufficient  to  be  effective  in  controlling 
other  organisms  is  apparently  a  phenomenon  that  occurs  only  under  unusual  laboratory 
conditions.   This  has  important  implications  with  respect  to  patent  applications,  be- 
cause if  antibiotic  production  were  a  "natural  phenomenon"  these  chemicals  could  not 
be  patented.   Furthermore,  it  would  not  be  reasonable  to  expect  to  control  soil-borne 
diseases  by  incorporating  such  antibiotic-producing  organisms  into  the  soil. 

The  technique  might  be  effective,  however,  if  high  levels  of  the  proper  nutrients 
were  incorporated  into  the  soil,  and  if  cultural  practices  were  modified  to  promote 


15 


the  production  of  the  antibiotic  in  amounts  sufficiently  high  to  overcome  the  inacti- 
vation  rates  resulting  from  adsorption,  chemical  reactions,  and  microbiological  deg- 
radation in  the  soil. 

Because  of  the  importance  of  Streptomyoes  sp.    in  the  production  of  various  anti- 
biotics, a  reliable  means  was  needed  for  their  identification.   National  and  interna- 
tional cooperative  research  programs  were  organized  to  redescribe  all  type  species. 
The  Department  of  Plant  Pathology  at  the  University  of  Illinois  was  the  center  of  this 
effort,  not  only  in  leadership  and  organization  but  also  in  evolving  research  tech- 
niques suited  to  the  purpose.   As  far  as  is  known,  this  project  was  the  first  such 
cooperative  effort  and  served  as  a  model  for  others. 


16 


BEEF  PERFORMANCE  TESTING 


Beef  performance  testing  is  an  example  of  an  extension  program  that  was  conceived 
before  the  industry  was  ready  for  it  but  illustrates  the  importance  of  forward 
planning  in  enabling  extension  personnel  to  render  maximum  service  to  their  clien- 
tele. 

The  program  was  started  in  1955  when  the  first  herd  to  be  evaluated  was  owned 
by  Glenn  Brown  of  Athens,  Illinois.   It  grew  slowly  until  at  the  end  of  ten  years 
about  6,500  calves  were  being  weighed  and  graded,  and  about  1,000  yearling  records 
were  being  collected  annually.   In  recent  years  the  owners  of  purebred  beef  cat- 
tle have  become  more  conscious  of  the  value  of  performance  records,  and  hence  are 
much  more  receptive  to  the  program  than  they  were  even  in  1965.   The  herd  owner, 
the  county  extension  adviser,  the  area  livestock  adviser,  and  the  state  livestock 
specialists  are  all  involved  in  the  several  phases  of  the  program.   About  500 
herd  owners  are  actively  participating,  with  over  14,000  calf  records  and  about 
2,000  yearling  records  being  processed  annually. 

WEANING-TIME   PHASE 

This  is  the  first  part  of  the  Illinois  BPT  program.   Each  calf  must  be  weighed 
individually  and  its  weight  recorded  on  the  proper  work  sheet.   It  is  recommended 
that  all  calves  be  weighed  at  about  seven  months  of  age,  but  weights  made  between 
150  and  270  days  of  age  will  be  adjusted  to  an  estimated  205-day  weight. 

All  calves  are  evaluated  when  they  are  weighed,  preferably  by  a  three-man 
committee,  giving  major  emphasis  to  body  type  and  muscling.   Feeder  calf  grade 
is  optional.   Evaluation  scores  and  the  grades,  if  used,  are  forwarded  to  Urbana 
along  with  a  processing  fee. 

POST-WEANING   PHASE 

Weaned  calves  are  group-fed  for  at  least  140  days  in  order  to  test  their  abil- 
ity to  gain.   They  do  not  have  to  be  full-fed,  but  all  should  receive  the  same 
ration.   The  test  period  starts  on  the  date  the  weaning  weights  are  obtained  and 
ends  at  least  140  days  later,  when  the  animals  are  nearing  one  year  of  age.   Of- 
ficial 365-day/weights  and  weight  ratios  are  calculated  only  for  animals  that  are  at 
least  330  days  old  and  have  been  on  test  at  least  140  days. 

At  the  end  of  the  post-weaning  period,  all  animals  are  weighed  and  evaluated 
as  before,  preferably  by  a  three-man  committee.   Again,  the  evaluation  scores 
and  the  grades,  if  used,  are  forwarded  to  Urbana,  with  a  processing  fee. 

CARCASS   EVALUATION   PHASE 

Weaning  weights,  evaluation  scores,  and  post-weaning  performance  may  all  be 
satisfactory  but  it  is  also  important  to  know  how  well  a  herd  measures  up  in  pro- 
ducing trim,  meaty,  high-grading  carcasses  at  normal  market  weight.   Carcass 
evaluation  of  the  progeny  is  also  a  good  measure  of  sire  performance,  and  it  is 
recommended  that  such  a  record  be  made  of  each  sire's  first  calf  crop. 


17 


The  recommended  procedure  is  to  select  eight  to  twelve  cattle  for  slaughter- 
steers  weighing  at  least  975  pounds  and  heifers  at  least  875  pounds--with  enough 
finish  to  grade  Choice.   The  spread  in  slaughter  weights  for  a  group  of  either 
steers  or  heifers  should  be  less  than  100  pounds.   No  more  than  half  of  the  test 
group  should  be  heifers. 

The  simplest  way  to  obtain  complete  and  accurate  carcass  data  is  to  make  use 
of  the  federal  grading  service.   Detailed  directions  for  accomplishing  this  are 
given  in  Illinois  Extension  Circular  1081. 


18 


BENEFICIAL  SOIL  FUNGI--THE  ENDOGONES 


Fungi  of  the  genus  Endogone  long  went  undetected  in  Illinois  soils,  but  they  are  now 
known  to  be  abundant.  Instead  of  being  harmful  or  pathogenic  as  are  so  many  other 
fungi,  the  endogones  are  beneficial,  and  by  infecting  plant  roots  increase  the  abil- 
ity of  the  plant  to  absorb  nutrients  from  the  soil.  These  fungi  were  not  found  ear- 
lier because  they  will  not  grow  on  laboratory  media  and  therefore  cannot  be  isolated 
by  the  usual  methods. 

When  an  endogone  infects  a  root,  it  produces  a  structure  composed  of  root  and 
fungus  tissue  called  a  mycorrhiza.   It  is  the  mycorrhiza  that  in  some  way  not  yet 
well  understood  increases  the  ability  of  the  plant  to  absorb  nutrients  from  the  soil. 
Oddly  enough,  the  greatest  benefits  occur  in  soils  that  are  relatively  infertile,  and 
in  such  soils  the  mycorrhizal  plants  are  able  to  make  much  better  growth  than  nonmy- 
corrhizal  plants. 

A  different  kind  of  mycorrhiza  that  forms  on  pine  and  beech  trees  has  been  known 
and  studied  for  many  years.  Here  also,  the  fungi  absorb  nutrients  from  the  soil  and 
release  some  of  them  to  the  roots  so  that  the  mycorrhizal  tree  grows  much  better  than 
one  that  is  not  infected. 

Each  species  of  endogone  has  a  very  wide  range  of  host  plants  on  which  it  will 
grow,  so  that  a  single  species  can  infect  such  diverse  plants  as  corn,  onions,  red 
clover,  strawberries,  and  tulip  trees.   Endogone  spores  are  larger  than  those  produced 
by  any  other  type  of  fungus,  and  contain  oil  droplets  that  probably  serve  as  stored 
food  for  the  fungus. 


19 


BLANCHING  VEGETABLES  BEFORE  FREEZING 


Although  blanching  or  scalding  of  vegetables  before  freezing  has  been  recommended 
since  the  early  1930' s,  the  comment  is  often  heard  that  this  procedure  is  unnecessary 
when  vegetables  are  prepared  for  freezing  under  home  conditions.   Frances  Van  Duyne 
and  Virginia  Charles  in  the  Department  of  Home  Economics  undertook  to  find  out  what 
actually  happens  to  vegetables  that  are  frozen  without  prior  blanching.   They  com- 
pared freshly  harvested  broccoli,  corn,  peas,  snap  beans,  and  spinach,  processed  with 
and  without  blanching  and  retained  in  the  freezer  for  1,  3,  6,  and  9  months  before 
testing  samples  for  ascorbic  acid  (Vitamin  C)  content  and  submitting  other  samples  to 
a  taste  test. 

Except  for  broccoli  that  had  been  stored  only  1  month,  all  samples  that  had  been 
blanched  before  freezing  contained  more  ascorbic  acid  than  did  those  unblanched.  Dif- 
ferences were  especially  significant  after  6  months. 

General  acceptability  of  vegetables  frozen  without  blanching,  as  determined  by 
the  taste  panels,  was  uniformly  low  even  after  1  month  of  storage.   After  3  months, 
frozen  unblanched  peas  were  faded  in  color  and  snap  beans  were  slightly  gray.   Broc- 
coli was  rather  tough  in  texture  and  strong  in  flavor.   Further  deterioration  occurred 
with  longer  storage,  and  haylike  flavors  developed.   Several  samples  were  considered 
inedible.   Unblanched  corn,  although  retaining  its  color,  developed  a  disagreeable 
flavor  after  6  months. 

Blanching  of  vegetables  before  freezing  is  therefore  important,  both  to  keep 
them  palatable  and  to  retain  as  much  as  possible  of  the  original  content  of  vitamin  C. 
An  added  advantage  of  blanching  is  that  it  softens  the  vegetables  enough  to  permit 
them  to  be  packed  more  easily  and  solidly  into  freezer  containers. 


20 


BOTULISM  POISONING  PROTECTION 


In  1927,  Robert  Graham  and  co-workers  were  successful  for  the  first  time  in  pro- 
tecting horses  against  botulism,  or  forage  poisoning,  by  the  use  of  botulism  toxin 
which  they  had  detoxified  by  the  use  of  formalin.   There  are  three  types  of  botu- 
lism poisoning,  designated  as  A,  B,  and  C,  and  this  makes  the  problem  difficult, 
because  an  antitoxin  of  one  type  has  no  effect  whatever  against  the  other  two.   What 
was  needed,  therefore,  was  a  polyvalent  serum  containing  antitoxins  for  all  three 
types. 

Varying  amounts  of  formalin,  from  0.5  to  0.9  percent,  were  added  to  Clostridium 
botulinum   cultures  and  culture  filtrates  A,  B,  and  C.   The  formalized  toxins  were 
then  incubated  for  varying  lengths  of  time  at  37°  to  42°C,  after  which  they  were 
tested  for  toxicity  by  injecting  1  cc.  to  3  cc.  subcutaneous ly  into  guinea  pigs  and 
other  animals.   Ten  days  later  some  of  the  guinea  pigs,  along  with  untreated  control 
animals,  were  given  5  to  10  lethal  doses  of  unaltered  toxin  by  subcutaneous  injec- 
tion.  A  single  injection  of  B  and  C  toxoids  provided  adequate  protection.   Larger 
doses  (5  cc.)  of  C  toxoid  provided  protection  in  quarter-  and  half-grown  chickens. 
Type  A  toxin  was  apparently  not  completely  detoxified  as  rapidly  as  were  B  and  C, 
but  the  reasons  are  not  clear.   Horses  and  mules  were  not  protected  by  single  in- 
jections of  20  to  30  cc.  of  toxoids  A,  B,  and  C,  but  two  injections  a  week  apart  did 
protect  against  the  unaltered  toxins. 

Protective  amounts  of  combined  botulinum  toxoids  A,  B,  and  C  were  later  admini- 
stered to  horses  and  fowls  in  natural  outbreaks  of  food  poisoning  in  the  field  with 
apparently  good  results,  though  no  animals  were  left  as  untreated  controls.   When 
the  formalized  toxin  was  treated  with  ammonium  hydroxid  after  complete  detoxifica- 
tion, its  immunizing  or  antigenic  value  was  retained  for  a  minimum  of  six  months 
under  refrigeration.   Unrefrigerated,  the  immunizing  property  was  lost  in  a  few  weeks 


21 


BOUND  WATER  DETERMINATION  BY  NMR 


It  has  long  been  known  that  more  energy  is  required  to  remove  the  final  portion  of 
water  from  a  given  material,  such  as  flour  or  corn  starch,  than  is  required  to  drive 
off  the  initial  moisture.   This  final  portion,  commonly  called  bound  water,  is  so 
closely  united  with  other  compounds  that  it  remains  liquid  at  low  temperatures  and 
is  therefore  often  referred  to  as  water  that  does  not  freeze.   Little  is  known  about 
its  relation  to  food  quality  because  it  has  been  difficult  to  determine  quantitatively! 
and  estimations  are  at  best  rather  inaccurate. 

M.P.  Steinberg  and  associates  in  the  Department  of  Food  Science  developed  a 
technique  for  direct  quantitative  determination  of  bound  water  by  the  use  of  nuclear 
magnetic  resonance  (NMR) .   The  hydrogen  from  bound  water  (BW)  not  only  gives  a 
strong  signal  —  in  contrast  to  the  negligible  signal  from  the  hydrogen  nuclei  of  free 
water--but  within  a  given  set  of  instrument  parameters,  the  NMR  signal  from  BW  is 
independent  of  the  solid  material  with  which  the  water  is  bound.   This  means  that  a 
"universal'1  NMR  calibration  constant  could  be  derived  for  any  food  product. 

Using  a  low-protein  (6.7  percent)  flour  obtained  by  conventional  milling  of  soft 
red  winter  wheat,  doughs  of  varying  moisture  content  gave  consistent  readings  of  BW 
content  (defined  as  that  which  remained  liquid  at  -18°  C.)  amounting  to  0.29  ±  0.01 
gram  of  water  per  gram  of  dry  solid.   NMR  signals  indicated  that  most  of  the  bound 
water  remained  liquid  at  temperatures  as  low  as  -58°  F.  (-50°  C).  The  instrument 
is  expensive,  but  the  NMR  signal  gives  a  direct  reading  of  bound  water,  and  is  ac- 
curate, rapid,  and  nondestructive  of  the  sample  being  measured. 


22 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ADULT  HUMAN  BODY 


The  scientific  importance  of  information  on  the  chemical  composition  of  the  adult  hu- 
man body,  and  the  wholly  unsatisfactory  character  of  the  limited  information  availa- 
ble in  1945  led  to  an  investigation  of  the  subject  by  H.H.  Mitchell  and  associates. 
Results  were  reported  in  a  series  of  four  papers  in  the  Journal   of  Biological   Chemis- 
try  in  1945,  1953,  1954,  and  1956. 

Four  adult  human  male  subjects--ages  35,  46,  48,  and  60  years--were  analyzed  for 
water,  ether  extract,  crude  protein  (N  x  6.25),  calcium,  and  phosphorus.   For  one 
subject,  the  concentration  of  beryllium,  boron,  cobalt,  and  mercury  in  body  tissues 
was  also  determined. 

Crude  protein  (N  x  6.25)  averaged  17.5  percent  for  the  four  subjects,  water  61.1 
percent,  and  ash  5.2  percent.   Ether  extract  varied  from  a  low  of  4.3  to  a  high  of 
19.4  percent.   Calcium  of  the  whole  body  averaged  1.76  percent  and  phosphorus  0.89 
percent. 


23 


COCCIDIAN  PARASITE  LITERATURE 

Norman  D.  Levine  and  Virginia  R.  Ivens  in  the  College  of  Veterinary  Medicine  and 
the  Experiment  Station  made  an  exhaustive  search  of  the  scientific  literature  deal- 
ing with  coccidian  parasites  of  rodents  and  ruminants,  and  cited  references  in  Ill- 
inois Biological  Monographs  33  and  44  published  by  the  University  of  Illinois  press. 

The  first  monograph  summarizes  in  365  pages  the  known  information  on  taxonomy, 
morphology,  life  cycle,  hosts,  location  in  the  host ,  pathogenicity,  geographical  dis- 
tribution,  and  cross-transmission  studies  of  the  196  named  species  of  coccidia 
in  rodents.  Most  —  actually  16--of  the  named  species  described  belong  to  the  genus 
Eimevia3    even  though  that  genus  has  been  described  from  only  15  percent  of  the  337 
genera  and  4  percent  of  the  2,688  species  of  rodents. 

The  second  monograph  summarizes  in  278  pages  the  same  type  of  information  for 
the  100  named  species  of  coccidia  in  ruminants.   Here  also,  Eimevia   predominate, 
with  95  species.  Eimevia   species  have  been  described  from  20  percent  of  the  87  gen- 
era and  from  21  percent  of  the  188  species  of  ruminants. 


24 


CONCRETE  WALL  PANELS 


Precast  concrete  wall  panels  have  many  advantages  in  the  construction  of  industrial 
and  farm  buildings.   They  are  strong,  durable,  waterproof,  fireproof,  and  verminproof. 
Furthermore,  they  can  be  constructed  largely  of  local  materials  at  reasonable  cost. 
A  new  kind  of  reinforced  and  insulated  panel  was  designed  by  J.O.  Curtis  and  E.L.  Han- 
sen in  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Engineering.   The  new  panel  is  self-supporting 
by  having  the  lower  edge  placed  in  a  notch  in  the  footing  and  anchored  to  the  edge  of 
the  floor  slab.   With  this  arrangement,  no  separate  foundation  wall  is  needed  and, 
because  foam  plastic  insulation  is  included  in  the  panel  construction,  insulation  can 
easily  be  extended  below  the  floor  slab.   Continuous  wall  insulation  is  also  easily 
achieved. 

In  order  that  they  would  resist  normal  wind,  snow,  and  dead  loads  as  well  as  the 
loads  incurred  during  construction,  the  panels  were  designed  with  concrete  compressive 
strength  of  4,000  p.s.i.  and  yield-strength  tests  of  steel  reinforcement  up  to  ten 
times  that  figure.   The  basic  panels  were  designed  to  be  4  feet  wide,  and  8,  10,  or  12 
feet  high.   Shorter  panels  can  be  used  to  provide  window  openings. 

Careful  control  of  the  concrete  mix  is  essential  in  order  to  obtain  flawless, 
uniform  panels.   An  experimental  continuous  mixer  was  designed  to  meter  sand  and  ce- 
ment from  a  divided  hopper  onto  a  slow-moving  plastic  belt  for  discharge  into  an  au- 
ger, along  with  a  metered  amount  of  water.   The  complete  mixer  provided  a  capacity  of 
up  to  15,000  pounds  of  mixed  concrete  per  hour.   The  concrete  is  placed  in  the  mold 
in  three  layers.   The  first  is  about  7/8  inch  deep  and  is  vibrated  with  a  specially 
developed  vibrator  to  remove  air  bubbles  on  the  bottom  surface  next  to  the  mold  liner. 

Vertical  and  horizontal  reinforcing  bars  are  then  put  in  place,  and  another  lay- 
er of  concrete  follows.  The  2-inch  foam  insulation  is  then  put  in  place,  and  the  fi- 
nal section  of  concrete  follows.  The  entire  panel  is  5  1/2  inches  thick  with  insula- 
tion or  3  1/2  inches  without  insulation. 


25 


CONTROL  OF  ESTRUS  AND  OVULATION  IN  EWES  BY  THE  USE  OF  IMPLANTS 


Implants  were  made  by  mixing  5  percent  by  weight  of  finely  milled  crystals  of  17a- 
acetoxy-6-methyl-16-methylene  pregna-4,6,diene-3,20-dione  (MGA)  in  a  viscous  liquid 
silicone  elastomer.   The  mixture  was  cured  at  room  temperature  by  adding  stannous 
octoate,  after  which  the  cured  elastomer  was  cut  in  pieces  for  implanting.   After 
sterilizing,  an  implant  weighing  1  to  2  grams  was  placed  under  the  skin  of  each  ewe 
in  the  woolless  area  of  the  axilla  and  left  for  14  to  45  days.   Since  the  MGA  was 
slowly  absorbed,  the  implants  were  carefully  removed,  washed,  sterilized,  and  reused 
5  to  7  times  during  the  experiment. 

Estrous  cycles  were  inhibited  in  95  percent  of  the  361  ewes  receiving  implants, 
and  ovulation  was  presumed  to  be  prevented.   No  special  handling  or  feeding  practices 
were  necessary. 

In  a  flock  of  normally  cycling  ewes,  about  1  in  16  would  be  expected  to  be  in 
estrus  on  any  one  day.  By  contrast,  in  these  experiments  75  percent  of  the  ewes  were 
in  estrus  between  36  and  54  hours  after  removal  of  the  implants.  Ewes  conceived 
after  matings  at  these  estrous  cycles  and  produced  lambs.  Implants  proved  convenient 
and  useful  for  controlling  estrus  and  ovulation,  and  presumbly  would  be  useful  for 
applications  requiring  prolonged  administration  of  steroids. 


26 


CONTROL  OF  OVULATION  TIME  IN  SHEEP  AND  SWINE 


A  technique  for  predetermining  the  precise  time  of  ovulation  in  gilts  would  facili- 
tate certain  experimental  procedures  and  provide  increased  control  over  some  aspects 
of  management  in  commercial  hog  production.   In  the  case  of  sheep,  application  of 
artificial  insemination  would  be  facilitated  if  ovulation  time  could  be  synchronized 
in  a  group  of  ewes.   The  advantages  associated  with  restricted  lambing  periods  would 
also  be  more  easily  achieved. 

P.J.  Dziuk  and  associates  in  the  Department  of  Animal  Science  undertook  to  con- 
trol the  time  of  ovulation  in  gilts  by  treating  them  with  an  orally  active  progesta- 
tional compound,  followed  by  injection  of  a  gonadotrophin.   Gilts  were  starved  for 
24  hours,  after  which  treatment  lasted  for  8  to  10  days  by  feeding  a  dry,  ground 
diet  which  was  prepared  and  fed  so  that  each  gilt  would  ingest  500  mg.  of  6-methyl- 
17-acetoxyprogesterone  in  6  pounds  of  feed  each  day.   The  gilts  were  then  returned 
to  a  normal  diet,  after  which  they  were  given  an  injection  of  human  chorionic  gonad- 
otrophin (HCG)  in  4  cc.  of  physiological  saline  either  by  subcutaneous,  intramuscular, 
or  intravenous  route.   These  injections  were  given  to  various  groups  of  gilts  after 
5,  6,  7,  8,  or  12  days  on  the  normal  diet.   Eggs  were  recovered  after  slaughter 
by  flushing  the  reproductive  tract  with  physiological  saline  solution. 

Ovulation  occurred  about  40  hours  after  the  injection  of  HCG  in  94  percent  of 
the  animals  treated.  Stage  of  development  of  fertilized  eggs  was  very  uniform  within 
groups,  and  was  unrelated  to  the  time  of  insemination,  but  precisely  related  to  the 
time  of  expected  ovulation  (40  hours  after  HCG  injection). 

A  related  finding  was  that  heat,  ovulation,  and  fertility  can  be  induced  in 
gilts  with  delayed  puberty  by  an  injection  of  500  I.U.  of  pregnant  mare's  serum  go- 
nadotrophin (PMS)  when  they  are  9  to  12  months  of  age. 

By  the  fourth  or  fifth  day  after  PMS  injection,  75  percent  of  the  gilts  so 
treated  were  in  heat;  and  those  not  showing  heat  were  found  to  have  infantile  genital 
tracts  or  had  ovulated  previously  without  heat  being  detected.   Gilts  normally  reach 
puberty  at  an  average  age  of  7  months,  at  which  time  they  weigh  90  to  115  kilograms, 
though  there  is  some  normal  variation,  depending  on  genetic  constitution  and  envi- 
ronment; but  puberty  may  be  considered  to  be  delayed  if  it  has  not  occurred  by  the 
time  the  gilt  is  9  months  of  age  and  weighs  136  kilograms. 

In  the  experiments  with  sheep,  estrus  was  suppressed  by  the  consistent  consump- 
tion of  20  mg.  of  methyl  acetoxyprogesterone  (MAP)  per  day  for  14  days  by  ewes  pre- 
viously experiencing  normal  estrous  cycles.   With  higher  levels  of  MAP  (40  to  75  mg. 
per  head  per  day),  post-treatment  estrus  and  in  most  cases  subsequent  lambings  were 
grouped,   Futhermore,  group  feeding  of  50  or  75  mg.  per  ewe  daily  produced  results 
similar  to  those  obtained  when  ewes  were  individually  fed. 

MAP  given  at  levels  of  40,  60,  75,  and  200  mg .  per  head  daily  inhibited  heat 
;ind  ovulation  in  ewes  during  treatment  and  for  at  least  48  hours  afterward.   Ovula- 
tion occurred  consistently  at  about  25  hours  after  intramuscular  injection  of  500 
KU,  of  HCG.   Control  of  the  time  of  ovulation  by  this  means  may  be  a  useful  tool  in 
reproductive  physiology  research  and  in  practical  sheep  husbandry. 


27 


CONTROLLED  ATMOSPHERE  FOR  STORAGE  OF  VEGETABLES 


Respiration,  which  involves  uptake  of  O2  and  release  of  CO2,  is  a  major  physiological 
function  which  contributes  to  loss  of  quality  in  fruits  and  vegetables  during  storage. 
The  change  in  quality  can  be  reduced  by  lowering  the  environmental  temperature  and  by 
regulating  the  amounts  of  O2  and  CO2  in  the  atmosphere  surrounding  the  product  during 
storage. 

Increasing  the  amount  of  CO2  tends  to  reduce  the  respiration  rate,  and  this  re- 
duction may  be  further  augmented  by  decreasing  the  concentration  of  O2,  provided  the 
decrease  is  not  carried  too  far.  There  is  a  critical  level  of  O2  below  which  an  un- 
desirable anerobic  respiration  will  occur. 

A.I.  Nelson  and  associates  in  the  Department  of  Food  Science  undertook  to  iden- 
tify and  to  measure  the  chemical  changes  that  take  place  in  spinach  and  broccoli  dur- 
ing storage  under  several  environmental  temperatures  and  in  various  controlled  atmos- 
pheres involving  levels  of  O2,  CO2,  and  N2 . 

Samples  of  spinach  were  stored  for  8  to  9  days  and  then  analyzed  for  ascorbic 
acid,  dehydroascorbic  acid,  pH,  titratable  acidity,  total  nitrogen,  protein  nitrogen, 
and  soluble  nitrogen.   For  nitrogen  storage,  400-gram  samples  of  spinach  were  placed 
in  closed  jars  that  could  be  flushed  with  nitrogen  once  a  day.   Samples  for  controlled 
atmosphere  (CA)  storage  were  placed  in  open-top  ventilated  metal  containers  10  inches 
in  diameter  and  12  inches  high.   These  were  flushed  with  CA  containing  9. 2  percent  C02, 
4.0  percent  C>2,  and  the  balance  N2.   Storage  temperatures  used  were  34°  and  45°  F. 

The  rate  of  ascorbic  acid  loss  from  spinach  was  slightly  higher  in  CA  than  in 
air  at  34°  F. ,  but  only  half  as  much  as  when  stored  at  45°  F.   Loss  of  vitamin  C  in 
CA  was  less  at  45°  than  at  34°  F. ,  while  samples  stored  in  N2  atmosphere  showed  a  loss 
of  more  than  50  percent  in  total  antiscorbutic  value.   A  marked  increase  in  pH  took 
place  in  spinach  stored  in  CA,  while  titratable  acidity  increased  during  air  storage 
and  decreased  in  CA.   Protein  was  degraded  at  about  the  same  slow  rate  in  both  air 
and  CA  storage. 

Similar  studies  with  green  beans  showed  that  oxygen  concentrations  had  to  be  re- 
duced to  2  percent  to  decrease  respiration  to  60  percent  of  that  in  air,  while  changes 
in  CO2  level  had  little  or  no  effect.   Color  of  the  stored  beans  was  improved  because 
chlorophyll  breakdown  was  retarded.   No  differences  were  found  in  flavor  and  texture 
scores. 

Changes  in  broccoli  were  studied  by  storing  shoots  at  the  same  temperatures  used 
for  spinach  but  with  O2  variations  from  2  to  21  percent  and  CO2  from  0  to  20  percent. 
Respiration  rate  was  determined  by  measuring  CCb  evolution,  and  color  of  broccoli 
heads  was  evaluated  by  total  chlorophyll  determination  and  by  panel  color  grading. 

Respiration  was  reduced  by  progressive  increases  in  CO2  and  decreases  in  02-  An 
atmosphere  of  20  percent  CO2  and  21  percent  O2  inhibited  respiration  to  about  the  same ;. 
extent  as  did  one  of  2  percent  O2  with  no  added  C02-   Chlorophyll  retention  and  color 
scores  were  improved  by  progressive  increases  in  CO2  and  decreases  in  O2;  but  a  high 


28 


level  of  CO2  was  more  effective  in  retaining  chlorophyll  than  was  a  low  level  of  O2. 
Controlled  atmosphere  storage  for  28  days  at  34°  F.  resulted  in  good  color  retention. 

Color  and  texture  changes  in  raw  stalks  due  to  atmosphere,  time,  and  temperature 
were  minimal.   After  cooking,  however,  stalks  stored  in  high  CO2  had  brighter  green 
color  and  softer  texture;  and  these  differences  were  progressively  greater  with  in- 
creasing CO2  in  the  atmosphere. 

Such  information  can  be  of  value  to  both  fresh-produce  handlers  and  frozen-food 
packers.   The  packer  of  precooked  frozen  foods  would  be  benefited  by  the  better  color 
after  cooking  and  by  the  reduced  cooking  time  required  to  obtain  optimum  texture. 


29 


CONTROLLED  FEEDING  AS  A  TECHNIQUE 
IN  ANIMAL  EXPERIMENTATION 


Controlled  feeding  in  animal  experimentation  is  perhaps  most  easily  illustrated  by 
the  use  of  two  different  rations  which  are  fed  in  equal  quantities  in  order  to  dis- 
cover or  to  demonstrate  some  specific  nutritional  effect  on  the  experimental  animals. 
Interpretation  of  results  can  be  subject  to  considerable  error  because  of  possible 
wide  variation  in  voluntary  food  intake  by  individual  animals. 

An  important  adaptation  of  the  method  by  means  of  the  paired-feeding  technique 
was  first  suggested  by  H.P.  Armsby  at  the  Pennsylvania  Station  in  1921,  and  has  since 
been  used  by  many  investigators.  From  1928  on,  the  procedure  was  refined  and  well 
established  by  H.H.  Mitchell  and  co-workers,  using  paired  animals  kept  under  condi- 
tions in  which  food  intake  of  the  animals  in  each  pair  could  be  controlled  and  equalized. 

In  an  early  experiment  concerning  cystine  deficiency,  nine  pairs  of  rats  were 
used.  One  rat  in  each  pair  received  a  ration  containing  8  percent  of  protein  from 
dried  skim  milk,  while  its  pair  mate  received  the  same  ration  with  7.76  percent  of 
milk  protein  and  0.24  percent  of  cystine.  In  each  pair,  the  rats  were  of  the  same 
sex  and  of  very  nearly  the  same  weight.  They  were  kept  in  individual  cages  and  fed 
weighed  amounts  of  the  respective  rations,  with  total  food  intake  per  week  carefully 
equalized,  as  determined  by  the  rat  consuming  the  least. 

The  rat  receiving  the  cystine  supplement  gained  more  than  its  pair  mate  in  10 
weeks  of  feeding  in  each  of  the  nine  pairs.  This  result  would  have  been  obtained  by 
chance  only  once  in  512  trials,  thus  showing  clearly  that  milk  protein  is  deficient 
in  cystine,  in  terms  of  supplying  the  growth  requirements  of  the  rat. 

Many  such  tests  on  laboratory  animals,  swine,  and  chickens  have  amply  demon- 
strated the  value  of  the  paired-feeding  method  in  nutrition  studies. 


30 


COOPERATIVE  EXTENSION  SERVICE1 


Technically,  the  Cooperative  Extension  Service  in  Illinois  began  with  the  passage  of 
the  Smith-Lever  Act  on  May  8,  1914,  but  in  a  practical  sense  it  began  much  earlier, 
when  the  Illinois  Farmers'  Institute  was  created  by  an  act  of  the  state  legislature 
passed  on  June  24,  1895.  The  act  declared  the  Institute  to  be  a  public  corporation 
of  the  state,  "to  assist  and  encourage  useful  education  among  the  farmers,  and  for 
developing  the  agricultural  resources  of  the  state."  Further,  "It  shall  consist  of 
three  delegates  from  each  county  of  the  state,  elected  annually  at  the  Farmers'  In- 
stitutes for  said  county  by  the  members  thereof."  The  act  provided  that: 

There  shall  be  held  annually,  under  the  direction  of  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tors, between  October  1  and  March  1  following  of  each  year,  a  public 
meeting  of  the  delegates  from  county  farmers'  institutes  and  of  farmers 
of  this  state,  at  such  time  and  place  as  may  be  determined  by  the  Board 
of  Directors,  of  not  less  than  three  days'  duration,  which  meeting  shall 
be  held  for  the  purpose  of  developing  the  greater  interest  in  the  culti- 
vation of  crops,  in  the  care  and  breeding  of  domestic  animals,  in  dairy 
husbandry,  in  horticulture,  in  farm  drainage,  in  improved  highways,  and 
general  farm  management,  through  and  by  means  of  liberal  discussions  of 
these  and  kindred  subjects. 

The  institute  was  highly  successful,  and  there  was  continuing  cooperation  be- 
tween its  members  and  the  College  of  Agriculture.  In  1901,  Dean  Davenport  appointed 
Fred  H.  Rankin  to  represent  the  university  at  county  Farmers'  Institute  meetings  and 
to  carry  the  university's  message  to  the  local  people.  A  year  later  he  was  given  the 
title  of  Superintendent  of  Agricultural  College  Extension,  which  included  added  re- 
sponsibilities such  as  visiting  with  farmers,  contacting  youth  groups,  and  appearing 
at  various  public  gatherings  where  agricultural  topics  were  discussed. 

Active  cooperation  between  the  Institute  and  the  College  continued  and  helped 
lay  the  foundation  for  what  became  known  as  the  Agricultural  Extension  Service  (later 
called  Extension  Service  in  Agriculture  and  Home  Economics  and  eventually  Cooperative 
Extension  Service) .   Dean  Davenport  felt  that  the  Extension  Service  would  be  more 
likely  to  succeed  if  local  people  were  responsible  for  planning  and  administering 
the  program,  so  he  encouraged  the  formation  of  county  associations.  The  first  to  be 
formed  were  known  as  soil  improvement,  soil  and  crop  improvement,  or  farm  improvement 
associations,  but  eventually  all  became  known  as  county  farm  bureaus.  Several  counties 
were  already  organized  and  had  employed  farm  advisers  before  the  Smith-Lever  Act  was 
passed.  These  were  DeKalb  and  Kankakee  counties  in  1912;  McHenry,  Livingston,  Will, 
DuPage,  Kane,  Tazewell,  Peoria,  and  Champaign  in  1913;  and  Winnebago  and  Iroquois  in 
early  1914.   The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  agreed  that  these  local  associations  could 
serve  as  the  official  sponsors  of  the  Extension  Service  in  their  counties  after  enact- 
ment of  the  Smith-Lever  legislation. 

Dean  Davenport  kept  the  rules  for  a  county  organization  in  simple  terms:   When 
as  many  as  300  farmers  in  a  county  requested  help,  they  could  form  an  organization 

ISee  also  "Home  Economics  Extension"  and  "4-H  Club  Work." 


31 


which  would  have  as  its  sole  objective  cooperation  with  the  College  of  Agriculture 
and  the  USDA  in  supporting  and  managing  the  work  of  the  county  farm  adviser,  who  had 
to  be  approved  by  the  College.  The  local  organization  would  have  to  raise  enough 
funds  to  finance  at  least  part  of  the  work. 

It  was  agreed  that  a  candidate  for  employment  as  farm  adviser  should  have  had 
at  least  five  years  of  actual  experience  in  farm  practice,  education  substantially 
equivalent  to  a  course  in  an  agricultural  college,  and  five  years  of  successful  ex- 
perience after  graduation. 

Three  more  counties  organized  in  late  1914,  four  in  1915,  four  in  1916,  five 
in  1917,  32  in  1918,  ten  in  1919,  16  in  1920,  and  nine  in  1921,  leaving  only  seven 
counties  unorganized.  Four  of  these  later  joined  adjacent  counties,  and  three  organ- 
ized separately,  so  that  by  1937  all  102  counties  were  represented  by  local  farm 
bureaus . 

Just  as  the  Illinois  Farmers'  Institute  and  the  College  of  Agriculture  worked 
together  during  the  Institute's  first  twenty  years,  so  did  the  Cooperative  Extension 
Service  and  farm  bureaus  for  forty  years  after  passage  of  the  Smith-Lever  Act  in 
1914.   The  significance  of  this  relationship  was  aptly  stated  by  John  J.  Lacey  in 
the  preface  to  his  book  "Farm  Bureau  in  Illinois,"  published  by  the  Illinois  Agricul- 
tural Association. 

We  should  be  forever  conscious  of  and  grateful  for  the  combination  of 
circumstances  which  caused  Farm  Bureau  to  be  jointly  sponsored  by  farmers 
and   the  University  of  Illinois.  Farm  Bureau  simply  could  not  have  grown 
and  developed  as  it  did  without  the  strong  right  arm  of  the  Extension 
Service;  and  conversely,  Extension  could  not  have  attained  its  rugged 
stature  in  Illinois  without  the  solid  backing  of  organized  farmers.  Farm- 
ers looked  to  the  University  for  factual  information,  not  only  for  use  in 
their  own  business,  but  also  to  use  in  formulating  policies  for  the  Farm 
Bureau  and  its  business  affiliates.  The  fruitful  results  of  half  a  centu- 
ry of  teamwork  by  these  great  institutions  are  apparent  everywhere  in 
Illinois. 

On  July  1,  1943,  the  state  legislature  amended  the  law  which  had  created  the 
Illinois  Farmers'  Institute,  to  provide  that  the  affairs  of  the  Institute  should  be 
managed  by  the  Agricultural  Extension  Service.  The  program  of  the  Institute  was 
thereby  integrated  into  that  of  the  Extension  Service.  Eight  years  later,  on  June  18, 
1951,  the  original  act  of  1895  was  repealed,  and  the  Institute,  which  had  been  such 
an  effective  force  for  Illinois  agriculture,  ceased  to  exist. 

Passage  of  the  Smith-Lever  Act,  coupled  with  the  requirement  for  matching  state 
funds,  made  it  possible  not  only  to  employ  farm  advisers  as  individual  counties  be- 
came organized,  but  also  to  appoint  full-time  specialists  in  the  college  departments 
to  work  with  the  farm  advisers  in  various  subject-matter  fields.  By  1922,  names  that 
were  to  become  well  known  in  Cooperative  Extension  included  F.C.  Bauer  in  soils,  W.S. 
Brock  in  horticulture,  J.C.  Hackleman  in  crops,  F.P.  Hanson  in  farm  mechanics,  Emil 
Rauchenstein  in  farm  organization  and  management,  C.S.  Rhode  in  dairy  husbandry,  and 
W.H.  Smith  in  animal  husbandry. 

In  the  meantime,  because  of  the  need  for  increased  food  production  during  World 
War  I,  Congress  appropriated  emergency  funds  to  promote  the  organization  of  farmers 
and  to  enlist  their  aid  in  achieving  maximum  food  production.  Assistant  State  Leaders 
C.A.  Atwood,  J.D.  Bilsborrow,  J.C.  Spitler,  and  Vernon  Vaniman  spent  much  of  their 
time  organizing  county  farm  bureaus.  Although  increased  food  production  was  an  im- 
mediate objective,  the  basic  idea  promulgated  in  Document  88  issued  by  the  States 


32 


Relations  Service  in  1918  was  not  overlooked.  In  that  document  the  definition  of  a 
county  farm  bureau  was  given  as  follows: 

A  county  farm  bureau  is  an  institution  for  the  development  of  a  county 
program  of  work  in  Agriculture  and  Home  Economics,  and  for  cooperating 
with  state  and  government  agencies  in  the  development  of  a  profitable 
farm  management  and  efficient  home  and  community  life. 

The  Farm  Bureau—Extension  relationship  was  the  subject  of  several  investiga- 
tions in  the  late  1920' s,  but  the  depression,  the  New  Deal,  and  World  War  II  directed 
attention  to  other  matters,  and  little  was  heard  of  the  separation  of  Extension  from 
Farm  Bureau  until  1948.   In  that  year  the  National  Association  of  State  Universities 
and  Land-Grant  Colleges  set  up  a  committee  to  study  the  goals,  programs,  and  objec- 
tives of  the  Extension  Service,  and  to  make  recommendations.  One  of  the  committee's 
recommendations  was : 

It  is  in  the  public  interest  for  any  formal  operating  relationship  between 
Extension  and  any  general  farm  organization,  such  as  Farm  Bureau,  to  be 
discontinued  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 

Not  all  of  the  committee  agreed,  and  one  dissenting  opinion  recorded  in  its  pro- 
ceedings was  expressed  by  Dean  H.P.  Rusk  of  Illinois. 

Largely  as  a  result  of  the  findings  of  this  committee,  the  Granger  Bill  was  in- 
troduced in  Congress  in  1949.   It  provided  that  federal  funds  would  be  withheld  from 
any  state  extension  service  that  had  an  operating  agreement  with  any  single  farm  or- 
ganization. This  was  directed  primarily  against  existing  arrangements  in  Illinois, 
Iowa,  New  York,  and  a  few  other  states.  The  bill  failed  to  pass,  and  not  much  more 
happened  until  November,  1954,  when  Secretary  of  Agriculture  Ezra  Benson  issued  Mem- 
orandum 1368  entitled  "Activities  of  Department  Employees  with  relation  to  General 
and  Specialized  Organizations  of  Farmers."  The  basic  provisions  of  the  memorandum 
were  two: 

1.  No  employee  of  the  Department  shall  accept  the  use  of  free  office  space  or  con- 
tributions for  salary  or  travel  expense  from  any  general  or  specialized  organi- 
zation of  farmers. 

2.  Employees  of  the  Department  shall  be  subject  to  the  supervision  and  control  of 
regularly  appointed  Departmental  employees,  and  such  supervision  and  control 
shall  not  be  delegated  directly  or  indirectly  to  any  general  or  specialized  or- 
ganization of  farmers. 

This  required  some  radical  changes  in  Illinois.  There  was  nothing  in  the  Memo- 
randum or  in  the  law  to  prevent  county  organizations  from  making  contributions  to 
the  University  of  Illinois  to  be  used  for  extension  work;  and  substantial  contribu- 
tions of  this  nature  have  been  used  for  rent  of  office  space  and  other  local  expense. 

In  1964  a  task  force  appointed  jointly  by  Secretary  of  Agriculture  Orville 
Freeman  and  President  Henry  of  the  University  of  Illinois  made  a  detailed  study  of 
the  whole  problem  of  relationships  and  submitted  a  report  containing  six  major 
recommendations : 

1.  The  primary  purpose  of  Cooperative  Extension  is  education  and  this  needs  to  be 
reiterated  and  reinforced. 

2.  The  county  Extension  offices  in  Illinois  should  be  identified  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  University  of  Illinois  and  the  USDA,  and  not  as  a  part  of  any  gen- 
eral farm  organization. 


33 


3.  The  county  Cooperative  Extension  Service  offices  should  be  located  in  physical 
facilities  which  emphasize  to  the  public  they  serve,  their  close  association 
with  the  University  of  Illinois  and  the  USDA,  and  not  imply  close  association 
with  any  general  or  specialized  farm  organization. 

4.  Since  the  county  Extension  Service  is  an  educational  program  serving  all  persons 
engaged  in  agriculture  and  homemaking,  the  primary  source  of  financial  support 
for  their  programs  and  their  administration  should  be  public  tax  funds  provided 
from  federal,  state,  and  county  appropriations. 

5.  The  county  Extension  Councils  and  the  county  Homemakers  Extension  Councils  should 
be  clearly  identified  as  representing  all  of  the  farmers  and  homemakers  in  the 
county,  and  the  two  councils  should  work  together  very  closely. 

6.  The  farm  and  home  advisers  should  be  clearly  identified  in  their  important  role 
as  University  of  Illinois  staff  members  extending  the  educational  program  of  the 
College  of  Agriculture  to  all  citizens  of  the  state. 

The  members  of  the  task  force  were  Herbert  R.  Albrecht,  President,  North  Dakota 
State  University;  Richard  E.  Ballard,  Auditor,  Inspector  General's  Office,  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture;  Leslie  E.  Card,  Emeritus  Head  of  the  Department  of  Animal 
Science,  University  of  Illinois;  William  E.  Lavery,  Field  Representative,  Federal 
Extension  Service,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture;  Shannon  McCune,  Staff  Associate, 
Office  of  the  President,  University  of  Illinois;  and  Raymond  E.  Seltzer,  Vice  Pres- 
ident, Agri  Research,  Inc.,  Manhattan,  Kansas. 

Following  the  report,  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  University  of  Illinois  ap- 
proved a  policy  statement  to  the  effect  that  the  Extension  Service  should  be  housed 
in  a  variety  of  situations,  and  that  enough  county  offices  should  be  moved  from  farm 
bureau  buildings  to  establish  this  principle.  Subsequently,  more  than  half  of  the 
offices  were  moved,  and  rigid  criteria  for  tenancy  were  set  up  for  those  instances 
in  which  the  offices  remained  in  farm  bureau  buildings.  The  local  portion  of  financ- 
ing also  shifted,  for  the  most  part,  from  farm  bureaus  to  county  boards  of  commis- 
sioners or  supervisors. 

Prior  to  this  an  11 -member  Staff  Committee  on  Extension  in  Agriculture  and  Home 
Economics  had  been  appointed  by  Dean  L.B.  Howard  in  early  1960  with  instructions  to 
"seek  to  identify  within  the  framework  of  the  changing  agricultural  scene  those  fac- 
tors which  will  play  dominant  roles  in  determining  the  future  growth  and  development 
of  the  Extension  Service  in  Illinois."   It  was  also  made  clear  that  "it  is  not  the 
function  of  the  committee  to  develop  an  extension  program." 

Some  of  the  broad  areas  in  which  all  extension  workers  have  a  responsibility 
and  a  challenge  were  identified  by  the  committee  as  follows: 

1.  Improving  the  understanding  among  farm  people  of  the  economy  in  which  they  op- 
erate, and  of  the  market  for  and  the  pricing  of  their  products.  Such  understand- 
ing is  a  prerequisite  to  (2)  and  (3)  which  follow. 

2.  Aiding  individual  farmers  and  farm  families  in  making  desirable  adjustments  in 
the  use  of  their  available  resources.  A  program  of  production  education  involves 
both  technical  information  in  crop  and  livestock  production  and  the  best  use  of 
such  information  in  a  complete  program  on  the  individual  farm.  The  consequences 
of  individual  production  and  financial  management  decisions  (involving  the  home 
as  well  as  the  farm)  can  be  serious  because  of  increasing  volume  of  business  per 
farm,  relatively  low  price-cost  margins,  and  current  difficulties  in  financing. 


34 


3.  Improving  the  understanding  of  public  policies  and  programs  related  to  agricul- 
ture, and  developing  a  well-informed  leadership  capable  of  influencing  and  in- 
terpreting such  policies  and  programs. 

4.  Assisting  farm  and  non-farm  families  in  developing  rural  communities,  institu- 
tions, and  special-interest  organizations  that  will  contribute  to  a  more  complete 
and  satisfying  life.  In  the  past  several  years,  the  most  rapidly  increasing  sec- 
tor of  our  population  has  been  the  rural  non-farm  population,  a  development  that 
is  not  limited  to  what  are  known  as  fringe  areas  near  metropolitan  centers. 

5.  Helping  non-farm  people,  including  those  in  industries  closely  associated  with 
agriculture,  to  obtain  a  better  understanding  of  agricultural  problems. 

6.  Broadening  those  programs  which  involve  industries  engaged  in  supplying  materials 
and  equipment  to  farmers  and  in  the  marketing,  processing,  and  distribution  of  . 
farm  products.  Education  in  agriculture  cannot  be  limited  to  a  "farm"  program. 
Extension  has  a  vital  interest  in,  and  an  obligation  to,  those  agricultural  in- 
dustries which  contribute  to  the  welfare  of  farm  families. 

7.  Helping  farm  families  faced  with  the  need  or  the  desire  to  leave  farming  as  an 
occupation,  to  make  the  necessary  adjustments  in  shifting  to  a  full-time  or  part- 
time  non-farm  occupation. 

A  realistic  consideration  of  these  and  other  related  questions  will  make 
it  clear  that  Extension  cannot  possibly  "be  all  things  to  all  people." 
This  is  recognized  in  part  in  the  view  long  held  by  the  Extension  Service 
that  extension  programs  should  originate  in  the  counties  and  that  the  chief 
function  of  the  Service  itself  is  to  provide  trained  personnel  to  assist  in 
carrying  out  the  educational  aspects  of  the  program.  This  idea,  laudable  in 
itself  as  an  expression  of  the  reluctance  of  the  Service  to  dominate,  in- 
evitably tends  to  lessen  acceptance  by  the  Service  of  responsibility  for 
leadership  in  educational  matters.  This  tendency  needs  to  be  offset  by  a 
dynamic  program  through  which  the  Cooperative  Extension  Service  can  and 
will  exercise  effective  leadership. 

Having  established  that  background  for  its  study,  the  committee  invited  comments 
on  local  problems  from  county  extension  personnel,  and  from  those  received  as  well  as 
from  its  own  observations,  concluded  that  under  the  economic  conditions  existing  at 
the  time  it  was  essential  for  Extension  to  do  an  even  better  job  than  ever  before. 
It  set  out  the  following  areas  as  needing  primary  consideration  for  the  future: 

Financing  the  Cooperative  Extension  Service 
People-to-people  relationships 
Staff  status  of  county  personnel 
Professional  training  of  extension  personnel 
Program  planning,  including  youth  work 
Organization:  area  specialists, 

combining  county  units,  one  Extension  Council  in  each 

county  instead  of  two 
Internal  communication  within  the  Service  itself 

The  next  step  was  a  two-day  administrative  seminar  and  workshop  held  in  Decem- 
ber, 1961,  involving  the  members  of  the  administrative  staff  and  the  subject-matter 
specialists.  A  sumary  statement  approved  by  the  group  read  as  follows: 

The  public,  as  clientele  of  Extension,'  is  expecting  from  Cooperative  Ex- 
tension (1)  more  and  more  specialization;  (2)  a  wider  latitude  in  technol- 
ogy J  (3)  expanded  educational  service  to  urban  needs;  and  (4)  educational 
leadership  with  commercial  suppliers. 

35 


The  state  staff  acknowledges  the  educational  needs  of  local  people  as  the 
basis  for  program  planning  and  development. 

For  the  most  effective  training  and  service,  the  state  and  area  special- 
ists should  be  based  in  their  respective  subject-matter  departments.  These 
arrangements  make  a  strong  educational  authority  in  Illinois  which  should 
be  strengthened  with  more  specialized  training  for  field  staff. 

The  effectiveness  of  the  state  staff  depends  upon  the  clientele's  accept- 
ance of  the  field  staff.  To  maintain  and  improve  acceptance,  it  is  impor- 
tant that  the  county  units  be  properly  identified  and  adequately  financed, 
and  that  the  county  staff  and  councils  understand  organizational  change. 
County  clientele  and  councils  should  be  sampled  to  determine  the  need  for 
structural  change.  We  should  be  sure  our  changes  are  improvements. 

In  July,  1965,  Director  J.B.  Claar  appointed  a  17-member  Extension  Staff  Study 
Committee  "to  evaluate  our  progress  and  plan  ahead  for  the  '70s."  Specifically,  the 
committee  was  asked  to  study  the  desirability  of  making  changes  in  the  assignments 
of  Extension  staff  and  in  methods  of  operation  to  achieve  more  specialization  and 
multi-county  programming. 

The  committee  based  its  report  on  the  principle  that  Cooperative  Extension 
should  maintain  a  built-in  flexibility  in  its  organization  so  that  it  can  readily 
make  structural  changes  in  order  to  offer  educational  services  to  its  various  audi- 
ences at  the  highest  possible  level  of  efficiency. 

Under  "Goals  for  the  System"  the  committee  said  in  part: 

Meeting  the  needs  of  its  clientele  in  the  '70s  presents  a  challenge  to  Co- 
operative Extension,  both  in  the  degree  of  specialization  required  of  its 
staff  and  in  the  breadth  of  activities  for  which  it  needs  to  be  prepared. 
Extension  must  therefore  develop  and  maintain  the  highest  possible  profes- 
sional competence  within  its  own  staff.  Since  programs  are  continually 
changing,  Extension  administration  must  exert  a  continuing  effort  to  en- 
courage, and  to  facilitate,  additional  education  for  its  staff. 

In  its  planning  for  the  future,  Extension  should  consider  the  pattern  of 
junior  college  development  in  the  state,  and  the  location  of  existing  ed- 
ucational institutions,  in  order  to  give  due  recognition  to  the  education- 
al resources  available,  and  to  become  available,  and  to  make  it  easy  for 
these  institutions  to  participate  in  the  total  Extension  program. 

Organization  for  the  future  was  given  major  consideration  by  the  committee,  as 
indicated  by  the  following  statements  in  its  report: 

1.  The  committee  recommends  that  the  Extension  program  of  the  future  be 
built  around  the  concept  of  a  total  University  system  of  off-campus  education. 

2.  We  recommend  the  establishment  of  University  Extension  Centers,  located 
at  readily  accessible  points  and  numbering  eventually  10  to  15,  with  func- 
tions as  follows: 

a)  Providing  for  the  housing  of  professional  staff--the  exact  number 
at  any  center  to  be  determined  on  the  basis  of  specific  education- 
al needs  of  the  area. 

b)  Providing  accommodations  for  conferences  and  other  meetings. 

c)  Providing  facilities  for  extension  courses,  both  credit  and  non- 
credit. 


36 


3.  We  believe  that  the  highest  level  of  local  program  efficiency  can  best 
be  developed  on  a  multi-county  educational  service  area  basis.  The  number 
of  counties  in  such  areas  would  vary  among  subject-matter  fields,  and  would 
depend  upon  the  educational  needs  of  clientele  groups  within  the  area.  In 
some  instances,  the  educational  needs  of  a  clientele  group  may  indicate 
that  the  educational  service  offered  might  not  extend  farther  than  the 
boundaries  of  a  single  county. 

The  committee  endorses  the  current  plan  of  identifying  certain  advisers  as 
especially  competent  in  designated  subject-matter  fields  and  assigning  them 
to  work  across  county  lines  (examples:  soils,  crops,  livestock,  4-H).   The 
committee  also  approves  the  principle  of  employing  area  advisers  in  spe- 
cialized subject-matter  fields  (examples:  agricultural  engineering,  agri- 
cultural economics,  resource  development). 

4.  We  recommend  that  the  county  offices  be  continued  as  long  as  they  con- 
tribute efficiently  to  the  educational  program,  and  that  they  remain  the 
centers  for  4-H  and  similar  programs. 

5.  We  urge  that  Extension  continue  to  involve  local  people  in  program  planning. 

Finally,  we  recommend  that  the  Cooperative  Extension  Service  strive  for 
more  stable  financial  support.  This  stability  will  become  increasingly  im- 
portant as  Extension  moves  toward  Extension  Centers  and  area  programs. 

When  enough  county  farm  bureaus  had  been  organized  to  make  it  feasible,  it  be- 
came established  policy  for  all  extension  work  to  be  carried  on  by  or  through  the 
farm  advisers.  A  meeting  sponsored  by  a  teacher  of  vocational  agriculture  or  a  com- 
mercial feed  company,  for  example,  would  be  cleared  through  the  farm  adviser  if  uni- 
versity personnel  from  Urbana  were  to  be  involved  in  the  program. 

State  subject-matter  specialists  initiated  extension  projects,  but  a  decision 
as  to  which  projects  should  receive  major  emphasis  in  a  given  county  or  in  a  partic- 
ular year  rested  with  the  farm  adviser  and  his  Extension  Council.  As  the  program  ex- 
panded to  include  more  and  more  people,  it  became  necessary  to  have  a  small  adminis- 
trative group  in  Urbana  to  maintain  close  contact  with  the  counties  in  order  to  be 
as  helpful  as  possible  to  the  local  staff.  Accordingly,  the  state  was  divided  into 
six  districts,  with  an  Assistant  State  Leader  for  Agriculture  and  one  for  Home  Eco- 
nomics in  each.  This  arrangement  served  for  many  years,  until  the  addition  of  various 
statewide  programs  called  for  further  subdivision. 

The  organizational  changes  adopted  in  1972  provided  for  ten  Extension  districts 
instead  of  six,  with  a  district  director  for  each.  Under  the  new  arrangement,  each 
district  director  will  eventually  reside  in  the  field  instead  of  in  Urbana,  and  be 
administratively  responsible  for  all  personnel  and  programs  in  his  or  her  district. 
The  new  field  system  should  also  broaden  some  of  the  advantages  experienced  in  the 
pilot  regional  office  in  Peoria  through  which  the  Director  of  Extension  was  asked 
to  coordinate  all  adult  education  activities  in  the  area  from  all  three  campuses  of 
the  University. 


37 


Organization   of  County  Farm  Bureaus  in  Illinois 


Original  name 


First  farm  adviser 


Date 


DeKalb  County  Soil  Improvement 

Association 
Kankakee  County  Soil  and  Crop 

Improvement  Association 
McHenry  County  Soil  Improvement 

Association 
Livingston  County  Soil  and  Crop 

Improvement  Association 
Will  County  Soil  and  Crop 

Improvement  Association 
DuPage  County  Agricultural 

Improvement  Association 
Kane  County  Farm  Improvement 

Association 
Tazewell  County  Farm  Bureau 
Peoria  County  Farm  Bureau 
Champaign  County  Agricultural 

Improvement  Association 
Winnebago  County  Farm  Improvement 

Association 
Iroquois  County  Crop  and  Soil 

Improvement  Association 
Bureau  County  Agricultural 

Improvement  Association 
LaSalle  County  Better  Farming 

Association 
Farmers'  Soil  and  Crop  Improvement 

Association  of  Grundy  County 
Adams  County  Farm  Improvement 

Association 
Hancock  County  Soil  Improvement 

Association 
McLean  County  Better  Farming 

Association 
Mason  County  Farm  Bureau 
Woodford  County  Farm  Bureau 
Lee  County  Soil  Improvement 

Association 
Mercer  County  Crop  Improvement 

Association 
Rock  Island  County  Agricultural  League 
Fulton  County  Agricultural 

Association 
Lake  County  Farm  Improvement 

Association 
Randolph  County  Soil  and  Farm 

Improvement  Association 
Ogle  County  Farm  Bureau 
Henry  County  Farm  Bureau 
Saline  County  Farm  Bureau 
Effingham  County  Farm  Bureau 


William  G.  Eckhardt 

John  S.  Collier 

Delos  L.  James 

Roy  C.  Bishop 

Frank  C.  Grannis 

Edward  B.  Heaton 

Jerome  E.  Readhimer 
Ernest  T.  Robbins 
Henry  Truitt 

Charles  H.  Oathout 

Albert  M.  TenEyck 

Lewis  W.  Wise 

Charles  J.  Mann 

Ira  S.  Brooks 

Frank  H.  Demaree 

Earl  W.  Rusk 

A.M.  Wilson 

D.O.  Thompson 
Frank  D.  Baldwin 
M.L.  Mosher 

Leland  S.  Griffith 

I.F.  Gillmor 
Palmer  R.  Edgerton 

Aaron  W.  Miner 

Warren  E.  Watkins 

John  J.  Doerschuk 
George  T.  Snyder 
John  T.  Montgomery 
Earl  A.  Price 
Herbert  J .  Rucker 


June  1,  1912 

June  1,  1912 

February  1,  1913 

February  10,  1913 

April  1,  1913 

May  1,  1913 

June  1,  1913 
June  1,  1913 
June  16,  1913 

September  1,  1913 

January  1,  1914 

April  1,  1914 

June  1,  1914 

September  1,  1914 

November  1,  1914 

April  1,  1915 

April  1,  1915 

April  1,  1915 
July  1,  1915 
January  1,  1916 

March  6,  1916 

April  1,  1916 
December  1,  1916 

March  1,  1917 

March  1,  1917 

July  1,  1917 
October  1,  1917 
November  1,  1917 
January  1,  1918 
February  1,  1918 


38 


Original  name 


First  farm  adviser 


Date 


Logan  County  Farm  Bureau 
Macoupin  County  Farm  Bureau 
Moultrie  County  Farm  Bureau 
Clinton  County  Farm  Bureau 
Macon  County  Farm  Bureau 
Morgan  County  Farmers '  Club 
Vermilion  County  Farm  Bureau 
Sangamon  County  Farmers'  Association 
Coles  County  Agricultural  Development 

Association 
Stephenson  County  Farm  Improvement 

Association 
Christian  County  Farm  Bureau 
Edgar  County  Agricultural  Improvement 

Association 
Henderson  County  Farm  Bureau 
Madison  County  Farm  Bureau 
Monroe  County  Farm  Bureau 
Montgomery  County  Farm  Bureau 
Union  County  Farm  Improvement 

Association 
Jersey  County  Farm  Bureau 
DeWitt  County  Farm  Bureau 
Richland  County  Farm  Bureau 
Crawford  County  Farm  Bureau 
Greene  County  Farm  Bureau 
Whiteside  County  Farm  Bureau 
Shelby  County  Farm  Bureau 
Williamson  County  Farm  Bureau 
Warren  County  Farm  Bureau 
Jackson  County  Farm  BureauJ 
Clark  County  Farm  Bureau 
Knox  County  Farm  Bureau 
Marion  County  Farm  Bureau 
Cass  County  Farm  Bureau 
Johnson  County  Farm  Bureau 
Menard  County  Farm  Bureau 
McDonough  County  Farm  Bureau 
Piatt  County  Farm  Bureau 
St.  Clair  County  Farm  Bureau 
Ford  County  Farm  Bureau 
Edwards  County  Farm  Bureau  „ 
Franklin  County  Farm  Bureau 
Pike  County  Farm  Bureau 
Stark  County  Farm  Bureau 
Carroll  County  Farm  Bureau 
Marshall -Putnam  Farm  Bureau 
Brown  County  Farm  Bureau 
Bond  County  Farm  Bureau 


,1 


Elmer  T.  Ebersol 
William  P.  Miller 
Allen  L.  Higgins 
Charles  H.  Rehling 
Sidney  B.  Smith 
George  B.  Kendall 
Arthur  Lumbrick 
Irwin  A.  Madden 

Melvin  Thomas 

George  F.  Baumeister 
Clair  E.  Hay 

Walter  B.  Gernet 
James  H.  Miner 
Julian  B.  Haberkorn 
James  A.  Tate 
Alden  E.  Snyder 

Charles  E.  Durst 
Clifford  E.  Wheelock 
Floyd  L.  Johnson 
Harry  B.  Piper 
Clarence  C.  Logan 
Eugene  M.  Phillips 
Stephen  J.  Craig 
Charles  H.  Belting 
William  E.  Hart 
Ralph  H.  Wells 
Clair  J.  Thomas 
Edward  H.  Walworth 
Emil  M.D.  Bracker 
F.J.  Blackburn 
Robert  W.  Dickenson 
Or a  M.  McGhee 
Garfield  J.  Wilder 
R.C.  Doneghue 
Arthur  E .  Burwash 
B.W.  Yillman 
Francis  C.  Hersman 
Henry  R.  Pollock 
Henry  A.  DeWerff 
Otis  Kercher 
Evlan  E.  Brown 
George  R.  Bliss 
Frank  E.  Fuller 
Aubrey  E.  Davidson 
Charles  Tarble 


February  1,  1918 
February  1,  1918 
February  2,  1918 
March  1,  1918 
March  1,  1918 
March  1,  1918 
March  1,  1918 
March  11,  1918 

March  16,  1918 

March  16,  1918 
April  1,  1918 

April  1,  1918 

April  1,  1918 

April  1,  1918 

April  1,  1918 

April  1,  1918 

April  1,  1918 
April  4,  1918 
April  15,  1918 
April  15,  1918 
April  20,  1918 
April  26,  1918 
May  1,  1918 
June  1,  1918 
June  1,  1918 
July  1,  1918 
August  16,  1918 
September  1,  1918 
September  1,  1918 
September  26,  191£ 
February  1,  1919 
March  1,  1919 
March  6,  1919 
March  15,  1919 
April  1,  1919 
June  1,  1919 
July  26,  1919 
August  1,  1919 
September  1,  1919 
November  1,  1919 
January  1,  1920 
February  1,  1920 
February  20,  1920 
April  1,  1920 
April  17,  1920 


lBecame  Jackson-Perry  June  5,  1937. 
^Became  Franklin-Hamilton  February  1,  1937 


39 


Original  name 


First  farm  adviser 


Date 


Jo  Daviess  County  Farm  Bureau 
Lawrence  County  Farm  Bureau 
Douglas  County  Farm  Bureau 
Kendall  County  Farm  Bureau 
Schuyler  County  Farm  Bureau 
Boone  County  Farm  Bureau 
Wabash  County  Farm  Bureau 
Cook  County  Farm  Bureau 
Pulaski  County  Farm  Bureau 
Scott  County  Farm  Bureau 
Calhoun  County  Farm  Bureau 
Jefferson  County  Farm  Bureau 
Massac  County  Farm  Bureau 
Clay  County  Farm  Bureau 
White  County  Farm  Bureau 
Cumberland  County  Farm  Bureau 
Gallatin  County  Farm  Bureau 
Pope  County  Farm  Bureau** 
Wayne  County  Farm  Bureau 
Washington  County  Farm  Bureau 
Fayette  County  Farm  Bureau 
Jasper  County  Farm  Bureau 


Clifford  C.  Burns 
Henry  C.  Wheeler 
Frank  W.  Garrett 
Earl  A.  Price 
George  E.  Gentle 
James  C.  Cline 
Forrest  A.  Fisher 
Charles  E.  Durst 
William  R.  Eastmen 
Guy  H.  Husted 
John  H.  Allison 
Bertram  Abney 
Ora  M.  McGhee 
William  E.  Hart 
Edward  W.  Creighton 
Charles  B.  Price 
Cecil  W.  Simpson 
Levett  Kimmel 
Charles  T.  Hufford 
George  E.  Smith 
Johathan  B.  Turner 
Russell  E.  Apple 


May  1,  1920 
May  1,  1920 
June  1 , 
June  1 , 
June  1 , 
June  15 
June  16, 
July  1, 


1920 

1920 

1920 
1920 
1920 

1920 

September  10,  1920 
November  22,  1920 
February  8,  1921 
March  15,  1921 
May  1,  1921 
June  1,  1921 
June  19,  1921 
July  1,  1921 
September  1,  1921 
September  1,  1921 
October  1,  1921 
September  1,  1926 
March  1,  1935 
October  1,  1936 


3Became  Pulaski-Alexander  February  3,  1931. 
^Became  Pope-Hardin  November  18,  1931. 


40 


CORN  BREEDING 


Corn  breeding  at  Illinois  is  an  excellent  example  of  a  research  project  carried  on 
for  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  century  with  virtually  no  change  in  its  original  ob- 
jective, namely,  to  improve  the  nutritional  quality  of  the  corn  kernel  by  changing 
its  chemical  composition  through  continued  selection.  A  doctoral  thesis  by  C.G. 
Hopkins,  entitled  "The  Chemistry  of  the  Corn  Kernel,"  published  as  Bulletin  53  of 
the  Illinois  Station  in  June,  1898,  described  the  early  work. 

Ten  years  later,  in  September,  1908,  Bulletin  128  by  Louie  H.  Smith  was  entitled 
"Ten  Generations  of  Corn  Breeding."   It  pointed  out  that,  starting  with  a  variety  of 
average  composition--Burr 's  White  Corn--it  had  been  possible  by  selection  and  breed- 
ing, in  ten  generations: 

1.  To  increase  average  protein  content  from  10.92  to  14.26  percent 

2.  To  decrease  average  protein  content  from  10.92  to  9.64  percent 

3.  To  increase  average  oil  content  from  4.70  to  7.37  percent 

4.  To  decrease  average  oil  content  from  4.70  to  2.66  percent 

By  1936--in  the  40th  generation--these  figures  were  21.63,  9.61,  10.14,  and  1.24 
percent,  respectively;  and  by  1973--in  the  74th  generation- -they  were  26.25,  4.19, 
18.41,  and  0.17  percent. 

The  general  procedure  was  to  analyze  60  ears  each  year  from  the  high-  and  low- 
protein  and  the  high-  and  low-oil  strains;  and  then  to  use  the  12  highest  ears  in 
the  high  strains  and  the  12  lowest  ears  in  the  low  strains  for  the  next  year's  planting. 

During  the  early  years,  the  various  strains  were  grown  in  isolated  plots,  but 
when  it  became  difficult  to  find  well-isolated  plots  each  year,  pollinating  was  done 
artificially  by  bagging  shoots  and  tassels  in  order  to  prevent  outcrossing  with  other 
strains  growing  nearby,  and  to  avoid  interbreeding  within  strains. 

An  interesting  and  valuable  development  in  connection  with  breeding  for  high 
oil  content  has  been  the  application,  since  about  1960,  of  wide-line  nuclear  magnetic 
resonance  spectroscopy  (NMR)  in  nondestructive  analysis  for  determining  the  oil  con- 
tent of  living  seeds--even  single  corn  kernels,  soybeans,  and  the  like.  To  test  the 
accuracy  of  this  method,  corn  samples  ranging  in  size  from  single  seeds  to  25  grams 
were  scanned  by  NMR  and  also  gravimetrically  analyzed.  A  high  positive  correlation 
(r  =  0.99+)  was  invariably  found,  provided  the  moisture  content  of  the  sample  was 
no  higher  than  4.5  percent.   (See  separate  account  "Nuclear  Magnetic  Resonance.") 


41 


COSTS  OF  TRANSFERRING  FARM  PROPERTY  BY  INHERITANCE 


Tax  costs  on  property  transfers  have  increased  primarily  as  a  result  of  substantial 
increases  in  property  values.   The  amount  of  taxes  paid  to  transfer  farm  and  other 
property  also  varies  considerably,  depending  on  how  the  property  is  held,  whether  a 
will  or  trust  is  used,  what  the  property  and  insurance  are  worth  at  the  time  of 
death,  whether  well-prepared  plans  were  made  during  lifetime,  and  many  other  factors. 

To  obtain  information  that  could  be  used  in  properly  advising  farm  people  on 
sound  methods  of  preserving  their  assets  by  minimizing  transfer  costs,  a  study  was 
made  by  N.G.P.  Krausz  and  F.D.  Marti  of  a  sample  of  50  estates  containing  farmlands 
in  Bond,  Champaign,  Kankakee,  Marion,  and  Peoria  counties.   Samples  were  picked  at 
random  from  the  larger  estates  probated  between  1950  and  1955.   All  but  two  were  val- 
ued above  $20,000,  and  the  range  was  from  $13,011  to  $837,578  gross. 

The  average  federal  estate  tax  paid  was  5.8  percent  of  the  gross  estate,  and  20 
of  the  50  estates  paid  such  a  tax.   The  state  inheritance  tax  was  lower,  reduced  each 
estate  by  an  average  of  1.3  percent,  and  was  paid  by  40  of  the  50  estates.   Taxes, 
fees,  and  other  costs  for  estates  of  various  sizes  ranged  from  about  $4,000  for  small 
estates  to  more  than  $140,000  for  the  largest  estates.   (See  next  page  for  a  break- 
down by  estate  size.) 

Taken  together,  the  average  total  deduction  for  taxes,  fees,  and  costs  for  all 
50  estates  amounted  to  15.5  percent  of  the  gross,  with  more  than  one-third  of  this 
going  for  federal  estate  taxes. 

In  summary,  the  study  showed  that: 

1.  The  appraisal  of  lands  for  death  taxes  appeared  to  follow  a  pattern  similar 
to  that  for  property  tax  assessments.   Better  lands  were  underappraised, 
and  poorer  lands  were  appraised  at  near  market  value.   On  the  average,  ap- 
praisals were  74  percent  of  current  market  value  in  these  50  estates. 

2.  The  Illinois  inheritance  tax  was  not  a  major  consideration  in  most  cases, 
taking  an  average  of  1.3  percent  of  the  gross  estate. 

3.  Fractionalization  of  farms  was  a  serious  problem:   out  of  137  heirs  of  re- 
alty, 46  received  less  than  41  acres,  and  78  less  than  81  acres. 

4.  A  will  can  be  used  to  take  maximum  advantage  of  the  marital  deduction,  and 
that  factor  seemed  to  be  an  important  consideration  in  most  of  the  33  es- 
tates in  which  wills  were  involved.   In  eight  estates  (six  of  them  without 
a  will),  $128,288  of  tax  was  paid  because  the  marital  deduction  was  not 
fully  used. 

5.  The  federal  estate  tax  was  substantial  for  estates  above  $100,000,  averaging 
$6,069  at  $100,000  to  $140,000  value,  and  $20,348  at  $180,000  to  $250,000 
value.   Lifetime  estate  planning  could  have  reduced  and  in  some  cases  com- 
pletely eliminated  this  tax. 


42 


Value  of 

Average 
federal 

Average 
state 

Average 

fe 

e  receiv 

ed  by 

Average 

estates  (in 

Executor 

Adminis- 

Attorney 

of  other 

thousands 

tax 

tax 

trator 

costs 

(in  dollars) 

0  -  20 

0 

131 

0 

0 

650 

3,431 

20  -   40 

0 

314 

320 

150 

1,099 

4,517 

40  -   60 

0 

128 

40 

712 

1,117 

2,337 

60  -   80 

850 

743 

450 

767 

1,540 

2,707 

80  -  100 

1,001 

732 

1,434 

343 

2,402 

2,928 

100  -  140 

6,069 

1,303 

0 

3 

,350 

2,903 

5,871 

140  -  180 

9,130 

1,634 

1,187 

2 

,000 

3,192 

15,665 

180  -  250 

20,348 

2,777 

1,500 

.  .  . 

4,750 

3,552 

Over  250 

87,480 

16,535 

11,250 

16,250 

9,255 

The  manner  of  holding  and  distributing  property  affects  the  amount  of  death 
tax  that  is  payable: 

a)  Joint  tenancy  reduced  state  inheritance  taxes  slightly,  and  in  the  larg- 
er estates  increased  the  federal  tax  because  federal  tax  law  presumes 
that  the  deceased  joint  tenant  owned  all  of  the  property  in  joint  ten- 
ancy. 

b)  Tenancy  in  common  was  used  in  28  estates.   Since  only  one-half  of  such 
property  is  included  in  inventory  for  tax  purposes,  there  was  an  advan- 
tage, taxwise,  over  joint  tenancy. 

c)  Life  estates  had  no  appreciable  effect  on  death  taxes. 

d)  Gifts  made  by  will  to  churches,  cemetary  associations,  colleges,  hospi- 
tals, etc. ,  are  wholly  deductible,  and  therefore  reduced  the  tax  rate 
for  the  taxable  portion  of  the  estate. 

Wills  should  be  made  early  in  life,  since  death-bed  wills  are  often  chal- 
lenged in  court,  and  federal  law  presumes  that  gifts  made  within  three  years 
of  death  are  actually  made  in  contemplation  of  death  and  are  therefore  tax- 
able. 

Lack  of  planning  often  places  a  serious  burden  on  the  heirs  to  pay  the  taxes 
and  probate  costs.   In  11  of  the  50  cases,  the  personal  property  (including 
equipment,  grain,  and  livestock)  was  not  sufficient  to  pay  these  expenses. 
One  solution  would  be  life  insurance  payable  to  the  estate  or  to  the  prin- 
cipal heir. 


43 


COTTONWOOD  GENETICS 


Eastern  cottonwood,  Populus  deltoides,    a  tree  well  adapted  to  the  bottomlands  of 
Illinois,  has  been  extensively  studied  by  J.J.  Jokela  in  the  Department  of  Forestry. 
It  is  a  fast  grower,  and  when  harvested  for  pulp  has  a  short  rotation  of  10  to  12 
years.   Its  fiber  is  widely  used,  especially  for  core  material  in  plywood  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  certain  kinds  of  paper.   Although  native  to  eastern  North  America,  it 
is  grown  commercially  in  Europe  and  elsewhere.   The  genus  Populus   grows  worldwide, 
and  more  than  thirty  species  are  known. 

An  early  survey  of  the  eastern  cottonwood  was  prompted  by  published  reports 
suggesting  that  in  poplars  and  other  dioecious  tree  species  a  positive  correlation 
existed  between  maleness  and  such  economic  traits  as  vigor,  resistance  to  disease, 
wood  quality,  and  stem  form.   The  survey  revealed  no  significant  differences  between 
trees  of  the  two  sexes. 

It  is  an  ideal  tree  for  genetic  studies  because  it  is  dioecious  and  is  easily 
hybridized.   It  can  also  be  vegetatively  propagated  by  stem  cuttings.   As  a  basis 
for  inheritance  studies,  plantations  of  eastern  cottonwood  were  established  in  1959 
on  adjacent  and  comparable  bottomland  sites  in  the  Sangamon  Forest  Plantations  in 
Piatt  County.   Three  native  populations  (southern,  west  central,  and  east  central) 
are  represented  in  each  plantation.   One  planting  consisted  of  unrelated  single- 
parent  progenies  established  with  one-year  seedlings  grown  in  the  Mason  State  Tree 
Nursery  near  Havana,  Illinois.   The  other  was  a  clonal  plantation  established  with 
potted  cuttings  rooted  under  intermittent  mist.   These  cuttings  had  been  obtained 
from  trees  4  to  11  inches  in  diameter,  and  were  restricted  to  the  current  season's 
growth  on  branch  tips  in  the  upper  crowns  of  the  trees. 

As  an  example  of  the  wide  variation  often  observed  in  cottonwood,  trees  in  the 
random  seed  plantation  averaged  about  27  feet  in  height  after  eleven  years,  while 
the  best  clone  in  the  other  plantation  attained  a  height  of  64  feet  in  the  same  time, 
As  the  trees  grew,  observations  were  made  on  roughening  of  the  bark.   Such  roughen- 
ing was  first  noted  in  the  seedling  plantations  during  the  third  year  following 
planting.   It  extended  progressively  upward  into  the  lower  crowns  of  all  trees 
in  this  plantation.   By  contrast,  only  10  percent  of  the  trees  in  the  clonal  planta- 
tion were  roughbarked  at  eight  years  of  age.   This  suggests  that  the  smooth-bark 
trait  is  characteristic  of  eastern  cottonwood  propagated  from  cuttings  taken  from 
the  upper  parts  of  pole-size  and  larger  trees.   This  outer  bark  is  only  one-fourth 
to  one-third  as  thick  as  that  of  rough-barked  seedlings  of  comparable  diameter,  a 
difference  that  may  be  of  economic  importance  to  the  pulp  and  paper  industry,  even 
though  a  thin,  smooth  bark  is  less  resistant  to  freezing  and  sunscald. 

Observations  on  the  occurrence  of  the  leaf  rust,  Melampspora  medusae,    indicated 
that  at  least  2  percent  of  the  trees  in  native  populations  appear  to  be  resistant; 
and  it  is  suggested  that  considerable  gains  in  rust  resistance  might  be  made  by  di- 
rect selection,  without  the  necessity  of  a  clonal  or  progeny  test,  and  that  addi- 
tional improvement  might  be  made  by  further  selection  and  breeding. 


44 


Provenance  and  heritability  studies  begun  in  1959  with  native  Illinois  trees 
were  later  enlarged  in  cooperation  with  several  state  experiment  stations  and  the 
Southern  Forest  Experiment  Station  (U.S.  Forest  Service)  to  include  material  from 
the  entire  Mississippi  River  basin.   The  objective  of  these  studies  is  to  provide 
information  on  the  amount  and  nature  of  genetic  variation  in  the  wild  species  that 
would  be  useful  for  selection  and  breeding  programs.   Traits  of  special  interest 
have  been  growth  rate,  hardiness,  disease  resistance,  branching  habit,  and  leaf 
characteristics . 

The  Department  of  Forestry  was  also  instrumental  in  the  establishment  of  the 
first  worldwide  provenance  tests  of  eastern  cottonwood  by  organizing  and  directing 
the  collection  and  distribution  of  rangewide  seed  collections.   Sixteen  nations  are 
participating. 


45 


CROP  YIELDS—VARIABILITY  IN  ILLINOIS  COUNTIES 


Farm  business  decisions  as  they  relate  to  expectations  for  the  future  are,  of  neces- 
sity, based  to  a  large  degree  on  past  experience.  Many  such  decisions  are  affected 
by  crop  yields,  and  it  is  important  to  have  reliable  yield  figures  as  a  partial  guide. 

To  provide  such  a  base  in  1957,  Earl  R.  Swanson  used  average  yield  data  by 
counties  for  the  years  1927  to  1953,  as  published  by  the  Illinois  Cooperative  Crop 
Reporting  Service.  Variation  in  county  crop-yield  figures  will  tend  to  underestimate 
the  variation  for  a  particular  farm  within  the  county,  but  the  county  figures  can  be 
very  helpful  as  a  starting  point. 

During  the  1927-1953  period  there  was  a  general  upward  trend  in  yields  for  the 
five  crops  studied- -corn,  soybeans,  oats,  wheat,  and  hay--resulting  from  such  factors 
as  new  crop  varieties,  improved  machinery,  and  increased  use  of  fertilizers,  so  that 
it  was  necessary  to  establish  a  trend  line  for  each  crop  and  each  county.  The  stand- 
ard deviation  above  and  below  this  trend  line  was  then  used  as  a  standard  error  of 
estimate,  expressed  in  bushels  for  the  grain  crops  and  in  tons  for  hay.  Thus  the 
trend  line  for  corn  yields  in  Warren  County  ran  from  about  38  bushels  in  1927  to 
about  63  bushels  in  1953,  with  a  standard  error  of  estimate  amounting  to  9.4  bushels 
This  means  that  about  two-thirds  of  the  yields,  year  by  year,  fell  between  9.4  bush- 
els above  and  9.4  bushels  below  the  trend-line  figures. 

To  provide  values  based  on  yields  reasonably  close  to  the  end  of  the  period 
studied,  this  standard  error  of  estimate  was  expressed  as  a  percentage  of  the  1949- 
1953  five-year  average  yield.  Using  Warren  County  again  as  an  example,  the  average 
corn  yield  for  the  27-year  period  was  50  bushels,  the  standard  error  of  estimate 
about  the  trend  line  was  9.4  bushels,  and  this  was  15.9  percent  of  the  average  yielc 
for  the  5-year  period  1949-1953. 

Considering  all  102  counties,  it  is  of  interest  to  note  that  there  were  29 
counties  in  which  the  standard  error  of  estimate  was  20  percent  or  more  of  the  1949- 
1953  average  corn  yield.  At  the  other  end  of  the  scale,  there  were  also  29  counties 
in  which  the  percentage  figure  was  15  or  less.  Only  three  counties  —  Clinton,  Randolph, 
and  Washington— had  percentages  of  25  or  higher;  and  only  five  counties— Carroll , 
Lee,  Ogle,  Winnebago,  and  Woodford— rated  10  or  below.  Averages  for  the  state  as  a 
whole  were  44  bushels  and  13  percent,  respectively.  Figures  for  all  102  counties  anc 
all  five  crops  were  published  in  Station  Bulletin  610. 

A  further  rating  of  counties  was  calculated  by  combining  the  variabilities  for 
all  five  crops,  weighted  by  the  percentage  of  land  in  the  county  devoted  to  each 
crop.  Yield  variability  increased,  in  general,  from  north  to  south  in  the  state, 
although  there  were  some  counties  that  deviated  from  the  pattern.  Thus  the  four  counties 
showing  the  lowest  average  crop  yield  variability  were  Carroll  10.6,  Woodford  11.4, 
Winnebago  11.9,  and  Whiteside  12.1;  and  the  four  showing  the  greatest  average  var- 
iability were  Clinton  23.3,  Washington  22.6,  Coles  22.4,  and  Wabash  22.4.   Forty 
counties  fell  within  the  narrow  range  of  17  to  15  percent. 


46 


DAIRY  HERD  IMPROVEMENT 


The  first  cow-testing  association  in  Illinois,  and  probably  in  the  United  States, 
was  organized  in  1902  by  W.J.  Fraser  and  Arthur  J.  Glover  (later  editor  of  Hoard's 
Dairyman).      Eight  farmers  agreed  to  weigh  milk  from  each  cow  twice  daily  every  sev- 
enth week,  and  to  take  samples  for  butterfat  testing.   This  preceded  by  three  years 
the  first  cow-testing  association  to  be  officially  recognized  by  the  U.S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  established  by  Helmer  Rabild  at  Newago,  Michigan,  in  1905.   Official 
supervised  testing  did  not  begin  in  Illinois  until  1910,  and  even  as  late  as  1950 
not  more  than  10  percent  of  all  dairy  herds  in  the  state  were  enrolled  in  the  pro- 
gram.  In  1924,  Professor  C.S.  Rhode  changed  the  name  of  the  Illinois  cow-testing 
project  to  "Dairy  Herd  Improvement  Association,"  and  this  name  was  later  accepted 
by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  cow-testing  groups  included  in  the 
National  Cooperative  Dairy  Herd  Improvement  Program.  The  program  has  expanded  until 
it  includes  about  3,000,000  cows  in  about  70,000  herds  located  in  the  50  states  and 
Puerto  Rico. 

Extension  Dairy  Specialist  J.G.  (Jerry)   Cash  felt   that  many  other  dairymen 
would  be  interested  in  a  simplified  plan  that,  with  a  minimum  of  record  keeping, 
would  enable  them  to  make  positive  identification  of  the  best-producing  cows  in 
their  herds  and,  more  importantly,  determine  which  cows  were  not  paying  their  way. 
When  Cash  offered  his  Weigh-A-Day-A-Month  program,  Clinton  County  was  the  first  to 
accept  the  idea,  with  farm  adviser  Bert  Sinclair  an  enthusiastic  promoter  of  the 
plan.   At  a  countywide  meeting  in  December,  1953,  attended  by  175  dairymen,  20  herd 
owners  signed  up  to  participate  in  the  new  program  beginning  in  January,  and  the 
plan  was  off  to  a  good  start. 

Fortunately,  milk  records  based  on  weighings  made  one  day  a  month,  usually  on 
the  15th,  vary  no  more  than  about  2  percent  from  actual  production  records  obtained 
by  daily  weighings  throughout  the  year.   The  cost  is  less,  and  the  dairyman  is  re- 
lieved of  the  routine  chore  of  daily  weighings.   A  few  other  records  are  needed, 
such  as  the  date  each  cow  freshens,  goes  dry,  or  is  sold.   The  record  sheets  are 
mailed  to  the  county  extension  office  for  summarizing,  and  completed  monthly  reports 
for  individual  cows  are  returned  to  the  herd  owner.   The  dairyman  must  of  course 
furnish  an  accurate  milk  scale. 

The  WADAM  program  was  soon  accepted  in  other  parts  of  the  state,  and  in  ten 
years  had  spread  to  35  counties,  with  252  herds  containing  more  than  6,000  cows. 
Other  states  became  interested,  and  eventually  the  Weigh-A-Day-A-Month  plan  was  ac- 
cepted nationally  as  a  phase  of  the  USDA-sponsored  National  Cooperative  Dairy  Herd 
Improvement  Program.  It  often  happens  that  a  dairyman  who  starts  with  the  WADAM  plan 
finds  that  he  wants  more  information  about  his  herd  and  steps  up  to  the  Owner-Sampler 
Plan  or  to  the  complete  official  DHIA  plan. 

In  the  Owner-Sampler  plan,  us  the  name  implies,  the  herd  owner  records  milk 
weights  and  takes  samples  for  each  cow  in  his  herd  one  day  a  month.   The  samples  are 
tested  either  by  the  DHIA  supervisor,  if  the  farm  is  included  in  his  schedule  of 
visits,  or  in  a  central  testing  laboratory.   The  records  are  processed  as  in  the 


47 


WADAM  plan  and  are  used  by  the  dairyman  for  herd  improvement  purposes.   They  are  not 
official  in  the  DHIA  sense,  and  therefore  are  not  used  in  the  USDA  sire  evaluation 
program  or  for  research. 

The  standard  DHIA  record-keeping  plan  is  the  official  plan,  and  the  only  one 
that  provides  records  eligible  for  use  in  sire  and  cow  evaluations.   The  local  as- 
sociation supervisor  visits  each  herd  once  each  month.  During  the  evening  milking,  he 
weighs  feed  consumed  and  milk  produced  by  each  cow,  and  saves  a  small  sample  of  her 
milk,   He  follows  the  same  procedure  during  the  milking  the  next  morning.   He  then 
tests  the  milk  samples  for  butterfat,  or  has  them  tested  in  a  central  laboratory. 
These  weights  and  tests  are  then  used  to  calculate  each  cow's  milk  and  butterfat 
production  for  the  month.   At  the  end  of  the  year,  a  summary  record  is  made  for  each 
herd.   A  lifetime  record  for  each  cow  is  developed  at  the  same  time.  As  evidence  of 
the  value  of  DHIA  participation  to  the  individual  dairyman,  the  average  annual  milk 
production  of  DHIA  cows  exceeds  that  of  non-DHIA  cows  for  which  records  are  available 
by  4,000  pounds. 

DHIA  records  provide  a  convenient  and  helpful  basis  for  evaluating  sires,  when 
the  herdmate  comparison  method  is  used.   A  sire  can  be  evaluated  by  comparing  his 
daughter's  production  with  the  production  of  other  sire-progeny  groups  that  were  fed 
and  managed  under  the  same  conditions.   This  method  minimizes  the  importance  of 
production  differences  from  year  to  year  and  from  herd  to  herd.   Sire  summaries  are 
provided  by  the  USDA  three  times  a  year.   Each  sire  in  the  summary  has  at  least  ten 
production-tested  progeny  with  production-tested  herdmates.   Cow  summaries  are  based 
on  a  combination  of  milk  and  butterfat  yields  and  the  transmitting  ability  of  their 
sires.   The  top  2  percent  of  the  registered  cows  on  official  test  are  thus  recog- 
nized, and  many  of  them  are  used  selectively  in  the  development  of  better  bulls. 

Another  innovation  in  Illinois  was  central  processing  of  DHIA  records  by  the 
use  of  EDP  (Electronic  Data  Processing)  equipment.   This  began  on  an  experimental 
basis  in  1953  under  the  direction  of  L.R.  Fryman,  and  proved  so  successful  that 
eventually  all  DHIA  groups  in  the  state  changed  over  to  the  central  processing  sys- 
tem.  It  was  inevitable  that  local  associations  and  county  extension  offices  would 
request  that  all  three  types  of  records  be  changed  over  from  hand  calculation.  Cen- 
tral processing  was  first  used  for  Owner-Sampler  records  in  1955,  and  for  Weigh-A- 
Day-A-Month  records  in  1963.   The  entire  system  is  now  in  use  nationally.   It  is 
worthy  of  mention  that  in  Illinois  the  transfer  from  hand  calculation  to  central 
processing  was  made  on  a  strictly  voluntary  basis.   In  several  other  states  it  had 
to  be  made  mandatory. 

Central  processing  permits  some  other  things  to  be  done  much  more  easily  than 
they  could  be  done  by  hand.   One  such  innovation  in  Illinois  was  the  rolling  herd 
average.   This  new  figure  was  first  calculated  in  the  fall  of  1955.   It  gives  each 
dairyman  the  average  milk  production  of  his  herd  for  the  preceding  twelve  months. 
It  proved  so  popular  in  Illinois  that  it  has  been  incorporated  in  the  program  of  all 
other  processing  centers  across  the  nation. 

Initially  all   records  were  entered  on  cards,  but  when  tape  equipment  became 
available,  a  shift  was  made  to  the  use  of  magnetic  tape  for  the  storage  of  necessary 
records.   This  greatly  simplifies  the  preparation  of  yearly  and  lifetime  lactation 
records  on  individual  cows,  which  are  routinely  returned  to  herd  owners. 


48 


DEGREE  DAYS  FOR  PREDICTING  CROP  DEVELOPMENT 


Meteorologists  and  weather  forecasters  have  long  used  "degree  days,"  one  type  of  heat 
unit,  for  comparing  the  severity  of  one  winter  season  with  that  of  another  and  as  a 
basis  for  estimating  fuel  requirements.   In  such  use,  the  number  of  degree  days  for  a 
specified  period  is  the  sum  of  the  number  of  degrees  per  day  that  the  average  temper- 
ature for  each  day  in  the  period  falls  below  65°  F.   When  used  in  relation  to  crop 
production,  on  the  other  hand,  the  degree-day  difference,  or  the  sum  for  a  given  pe- 
riod, refers  to  calculated  differences  above   some  specified  figure  called  the  base 
temperature. 

Degree  days  have  been  used  for  more  than  thirty  years  to  time  successive  plant- 
ings of  highly  perishable  crops  like  sweet  corn  and  peas,  in  order  to  have  the  crop 
ready  for  harvest  at  the  desired  time.   More  recently,  the  degree-day  system  has  also 
been  used  by  producers  of  some  of  the  less  perishable  crops  such  as  beans,  spinach, 
and  tomatoes.   The  use  of  these  calculations  has  been  stimulated  by  the  increasing 
acceptance  of  mechanical  equipment  with  its  "once-over"  harvesting  procedure. 

Seed  catalogs  often  include  such  expressions  as  58  days,  65  days,  or  90  days  to 
indicate  the  approximate  time  between  planting  and  harvest.   This  may  be  fine  for  the 
average  home  gardener,  but  is  not  sufficient  for  the  commercial  grower  who  must  time 
his  harvesting  operations  to  fit  marketing  or  processing  schedules.   The  65  days  may 
be  increased  to  70  or  more  if  the  weather  is  cool,  or  drop  to  60  or  fewer  if  it  has 
been  warm.   For  this  reason  some  seed  companies  are  now  including  degree  days  in  their 
catalogs,  thus  enabling  the  grower  to  make  his  harvesting  plans  with  greater  accuracy. 
A  designated  degree-day  value  will  reflect  the  temperature-time  relationship  for  the 
variety  in  question. 

The  number  of  degree  days  required  for  a  particular  variety  of  lima  beans,  peas, 
tomatoes,  or  sweet  corn  can  be  determined  only  by  observation.   Once  this  has  been 
done,  a  given  variety  of  peas,  for  example,  may  then  be  described  as  a  1 ,220-degree- 
day  variety  instead  of  as  a  59-day  variety.   Then  if  peas  of  that  variety  are  planted 
on  April  15,  the  base  temperature  is  40°  F.,  and  normal  temperatures  in  the  area  rep- 
resent a  difference  of  18.5  degrees  per  day  above  the  base  temperature  for  the  next 
eight  or  nine  weeks  after  planting,  the  most  likely  harvesting  date  will  be  (1,220/18.5) 
66  days  after  April  15,  or  June  20.   This  makes  the  peas  a  66-day  variety  in  that  par- 
ticular time  and  place,  whereas  in  another  location  the  result  might  be  a  57-day  va- 
riety. 

To  the  plant  physiologist,  even  this  is  something  of  an  oversimplification. 
First,  the  mean  daily  temperature  as  determined  from  hourly  recordings  is  seldom  the 
same  as  the  simple  average  of  maximum  and  minimum  readings  for  the  day;  second,  the 
growth  pattern  of  many  plants  can  often  be  better  represented  by  a  curve  than  by  a 
straight  line;  and  third,  growth  rate  is  often  more  closely  related  to  soil  tempera- 
ture than  to  air  temperature.   The  problem  may  be  further  complicated  by  the  fact  that 
night  temperatures  are  sometimes  more  effective  than  daytime  temperatures.   All  of 
these  considerations  have  been  used  by  C.Y.  Arnold  of  the  Department  of  Horticulture 
in  developing  degree-day  formulas  that  reflect  the  temperature-growth  relationship 
for  various  crops  without  being  too  complicated  for  practical  use. 


49 


DIXON  SPRINGS  AGRICULTURAL  CENTER 


The  Dixon  Springs  Agricultural  Center  is  a  great  outdoor  laboratory  in  southern  Il- 
linois. The  Administration  Building  is  located  on  Illinois  Highway  145,  midway  be- 
tween Harrisburg,  Illinois,  and  Paducah,  Kentucky. 

The  idea  for  such  a  center  was  born  in  the  late  1920' s  and  began  to  take  shape 
in  the  early  1930's.   Acting  on  requests  from  farmers  in  the  area,  Dean  H.W.  Mumford 
interested  Professor  H.P.  Rusk  (later  Dean  Rusk)  in  investigating  and  locating  a  site 
in  southern  Illinois  on  which  to  establish  a  research  and  demonstration  facility. 

After  several  inspection  trips,  some  correspondence  with  officials  in  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  and  a  few  memoranda  of  understanding,  the  University  took  the  first  option 
on  a  46-acre  tract  near  Robbs  on  November  13,  1934.   Professor  Rusk  then  made  a  trip 
to  see  Secretary  of  Agriculture  Henry  A.  Wallace  to  request  cooperation  in  obtaining 
an  additional  section  or  two  of  land.  He  returned  with  permission  to  negotiate  for 
as  much  as  20,000  acres.  More  conservative  thinking  prevailed,  and  the  final  result 
was  the  5,300-acre  tract  which  the  Center  now  occupies. 

Purchase  and  development  of  the  Center  under  the  general  supervision  of  the 
University,  with  the  active  cooperation  of  the  Soil  Erosion  Service  (now  the  Soil 
Conservation  Service) ,  CCC  camps,  the  Resettlement  Administration,  the  Bureau  of  Ag- 
ricultural Economics,  and  the  Works  Progress  Administration,  extended  from  1936  to 
1940.   In  1940  the  present  area  was  transferred  to  the  U.S.  Forest  Service,  which 
in  turn  leased  it  to  the  University  of  Illinois  under  a  Special  Free  Use  Permit  that 
is  still  in  effect. 

The  area  involved  was  originally  covered  with  hardwood  timber.  Early  settlers, 
some  of  whom  had  arrived  before  1800,  cleared  some  of  the  land  and  began  to  farm 
their  clearings.  Heavy  grain  cropping  and  consequent  severe  soil  erosion  led  to  the 
abandonment  of  many  fields.  Conditions  were  similar  to  those  on  other  land,  totalling 
about  15,000,000  acres,  in  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Missouri,  and  Arkansas.  Since  the 
Center  could  serve  the  needs  of  these  other  states  as  well  as  Illinois,  the  proposed 
use  of  some  federal  funds  for  the  project  was  easily  justified. 

Early  research  at  the  Center  was  directed  toward  finding  and  demonstrating  the 
best  ways  of  improving  and  maintaining  soil  fertility  and  reducing  soil  and  water 
losses.  Tied  in  with  these  objectives  were  efforts  to  determine  which  grain  and  for- 
age crops  and  which  beef  cattle  and  sheep  operations  were  best  suited  to  the  area. 
These  experiments  provided  facts  to  serve  as  guideposts  in  developing  a  system  of 
farming  that  would  prove  profitable  to  the  operator  and  still  maintain  soil  produc- 
tivity for  succeeding  years.   The  main  objective  of  the  Dixon  Springs  Center  has 
therefore  been  developing  these  basic  principles,  building  them  into  a  program,  and 
then  demonstrating  the  benefits  of  the  program  to  farm  operators  and  other  interested 
people.  The  program,  on  the  whole,  has  been  highly  successful. 

Findings  that  have  been  most  important,  as  demonstrated  by  their  acceptance  and 
measured  by  their  value  to  farmers,  are  improved  fertility  practices  which  have  made 
possible  the  production  of  luxuriant  pastures  of  adapted  grasses  and  legumes.  Im- 
proved strains  of  fescue,  orchardgrass,  alfalfa,  and  clover  have  repeatedly  proved 


50 


to  be  superior  to  the  old  bluegrass  or  redtop  and  timothy  pastures.  As  a  result,  most 
farmers  in  the  area  are  today  using  these  crops.  Only  limited  acreages  of  redtop  and 
timothy  are  found  on  farms  of  the  area. 

In  its  livestock  projects,  the  Center  has  demonstrated  that  quality  beef  cattle 
and  sheep  will  increase  the  returns  from  good  pastures.  Though  cattle  of  many  kinds 
and  descriptions  are  still  found  in  the  area,  higher  quality  beef  animals  are  in  the 
ascendency.  From  the  very  first,  the  beef  herd  at  the  Center  has  been  on  a  continous 
production-testing  program.   It  was  from  the  data  amassed  in  this  program  that  stand- 
ards and  correction  factors  were  formulated  for  production  testing  of  beef  cattle 
throughout  the  state.  No  other  program  promises  more  for  a  continuing  prosperous  beef 
industry. 

Unsophisticated  and  simple  as  these  contributions  may  appear,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  at  first  they  were  applied  and  tested  on  soils  that  were  depleted,  eroded, 
and  abandoned,  and  on  land  in  an  area  that  more  than  a  few  people  were  willing  to 
cross  off  as  hopeless.  But  the  broad  objective  has  been  accomplished  and  the  soils 
have  been  improved.  Farmers  have,  with  renewed  enthusiasm,  applied  this  learning  to 
pasture  and  livestock  management,  and  are  even  going  beyond  that  to  an  economically 
feasible  grain  production  program.  This  fact  alone  rates  the  work  at  the  Dixon  Springs 
Center  as  very  much  worth  while. 

Studies  at  the  Center  have  been  broadened  in  recent  years.  Departments  and  agen- 
cies with  active  research  projects  include  Animal  Science,  Agronomy,  Forestry,  Horti- 
culture, the  College  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  and  the  Natural  History  Survey.  Produc- 
tion of  corn  on  a  chemically  killed  fescue  sod  has  been  about  equal  in  yields  on 
either  a  plow-and-plant  seedbed  or  a  plow-and-disk  seedbed.  There  are  still  problems 
to  be  solved,  but  minimum  and  zero  tillage  of  row  crops  offers  a  real  contribution 
to  lowered  stream  pollution.  A  deer-movement  study  by  the  State  Natural  History  Sur- 
vey is  of  much  interest  to  conservationists.  Radio-marked  deer  can  be  located  once 
each  minute  24  hours  a  day,  with  transmitters  that  are  good  for  two  years  before 
battery  failure. 

The  Horticulture  Department  has  made  variety  tests  of  strawberries,  tomatoes, 
peppers,  eggplant,  and  cucumbers  adapted  to  the  area,  and  has  explored  the  possibil- 
ities in  greenhouse  production  of  tomatoes.  Another  study  involves  fruits  with  a 
pick-your-own  marketing  potential,  such  as  blueberries,  thornless  blackberries,  and 
strawberries . 

Forestry  research  involves  determining  the  effects  of  soil  moisture  levels  on 
volume  growth  of  50-foot  trees  in  the  study  plots  and  on  various  anatomical  features 
of  the  new  wood  growth.  Studies  are  also  being  given  to  nontimber  use  of  forest  lands 
in  the  area,  specifically  recreational  use. 

The  Center  serves  as  a  natural  focal  point  for  Cooperative  Extension  operations 
in  southeastern  Illinois,  thus  demonstrating  the  desire  of  the  University  of  Illinois 
to  help  the  people  of  the  area  in  finding  solutions  for  some  of  their  agricultural 
and  socio-economic  problems. 


51 


DOUBLE  MATING  USED  TO  DETERMINE 
OPTIMUM  TIME  FOR  INSEMINATION 


Rabbits,  swine,  and  sheep  were  used  by  P.J.  Dziuk  and  associates  in  Animal  Science 
to  determine  capacitation  time  (maturation  time)  of  spermatozoa,  and  to  estimate  the 
optimum  interval  between  insemination  and  ovulation.  It  was  hypothesized  that  by  mat- 
ing a  doe  with  one  buck  at  a  specific  time  before  ovulation  and  then  to  a  second  buck 
whose  offspring  would  be  readily  distinguishable,  the  offspring  should  be  only  from 
the  first  buck  when  the  interval  from  the  second  mating  to  ovulation  was  shorter  than 
capacitation  time.  If  both  matings  occurred  at  intervals  greater  than  capacitation 
time,  litters  of  mixed  parentage  would  probably  result. 

Thirty-eight  does  were  double-mated  to  two  bucks  whose  offspring  were  distin- 
guishable from  each  other.  The  interval  between  matings  was  1/2,  1 ,  or  2  hours.  Mat- 
ing with  the  first  buck  was  10,  9,  8,  7,  6,  5,  or  4  hours  before  ovulation.  When  the 
interval  between  matings  was  2  hours,  the  first  buck  sired  86  percent  of  the  off- 
spring, and  this  percentage  decreased  as  the  interval  between  matings  was  shortened. 

It  was  concluded  that  spermatozoa  that  have  resided  in  the  genital  tract  of  the 
doe  for  10  hours  have  a  competitive  advantage  over  other  spermatozoa  introduced  lat- 
er. Sperm  in  the  genital  tract  of  the  doe  for  more  than  13  hours,  however,  are  at  a 
disadvantage  to  sperm  introduced  later.  On  the  other  hand,  rabbit  spermatozoa  aged 
in  vitro  for  24  hours  fertilized  only  5  percent  of  eggs  in  competition  with  equal 
numbers  of  fresh  spermatozoa. 

To  confirm  this  conclusion,  another  experiment  was  conducted  with  New  Zealand 
White  (W)  and  Dutch  Belted  (B)  rabbits.  Each  W  female  was  inseminated  within  45  min- 
utes after  collection  with  20,000,000  motile  spermatozoa  from  either  a  B  or  a  W  male, 
and  three  hours  later  with  spermatozoa  from  the  male  of  opposite  color.  The  interval 
between  first  insemination  and  ovulation  was  19,  16,  13,  or  10  hours.  Ovulation  was 
then  induced  by  an  intravenous  injection  of  50  I.U.  of  human  chorionic  gonadotropin 
at  the  appropriate  time.  Results  from  58  pregnant  does  showed  that  the  first  buck 
had  a  distinct  advantage  (sired  73  percent  of  the  offspring)  when  mated  10  hours  be- 
fore ovulation.  As  the  interval  increased  from  10  to  19  hours,  the  percentage  figure 
decreased  to  54,  39,  and  finally  to  18.   It  appears,  therefore,  that  rabbit  sperm- 
atozoa fertilize  eggs  more  readily  when  they  have  been  in  the  female  reproductive 
tract  10  to  13  hours  than  when  they  have  spent  either  more  or  less  time  there. 

Forty  litters  of  pigs  were  produced  following  double  mating  of  gilts  at  a  6- 
hour  interval  by  boars  whose  offspring  could  be  readily  distinguished.  The  time  of 
insemination  was  determined  precisely  (±  1/2  hour)  for  each  gilt.  When  gilts  were 
grouped  according  to  the  interval  between  mating  and  ovulation  (30-24,  20-16,  14-12, 
and  10-6  hours) ,  the  first  boar  sired  33  percent  and  30  percent  of  the  offspring  at 
the  two  longer  intervals,  and  78  percent  and  71  percent  at  the  two  shorter  intervals. 

In  similar  experiments  with  sheep,  matings  of  147  ewes  took  place  first  at  23, 
19,  15,  11,  or  7  hours  before  ovulation  and  again  4  hours  later.  Conception  rates 
were  39,  32,  81,  43  and  32  percent,  respectively.  The  proportion  of  offspring  from 
the  first  ram  was  51  percent  from  matings  with  the  two  longest  intervals,  and  67  per- 
cent from  the  other  three.  The  optimum  time  for  insemination  thus  appears  to  be  about 
12  hours  before  ovulation  in  both  gilts  and  ewes. 

52 


DURABILITY  OF  FENCE  POSTS 


For  more  than  2  0  years,  research  workers  in  the  Department  of  Forestry  have  periodi- 
cally inspected  a  group  of  fence  posts  originally  treated  with  pentachlorophenol  (com- 
monly called  penta) . 

The  posts  were  all  eastern  white  pine,  7-1/2  feet  long  and  about  4-1/2  inches  in 
top  diameter.   All  were  peeled,  seasoned,  and  soaked  for  various  lengths  of  time  in  a 
cold  solution  of  penta  dissolved  in  No.  2  fuel  oil.   The  solutions  contained  10  per- 
cent of  the  toxicant,  but  later  tests  have  shown  that  5  percent  is  sufficient. 

Cold  soaking  in  penta  is  a  relatively  simple  and  inexpensive  method  of  protect- 
ing fence  posts  against  decay.   Minimum  soaking  time  should  be  48  hours,  with  the 
posts  standing  vertically  in  the  solution.   This  will  result  in  absorption  of  about 
3  pounds  of  solution  per  cubic  foot  of  wood.   In  the  test  of  white  pine  posts  just 
mentioned,  97  percent  of  190  posts  were  still  serviceable  after  21  years,  in  contrast 
to  an  average  useful  life  of  about  6  years  for  untreated  posts. 

Pressure-treated  posts  usually  last  longer  than  those  treated  by  soaking,  but 
the  necessary  equipment  for  pressure  treatment  is  expensive,  and  custom  treatment 
plants  are  not  always  conveniently  available. 

If  insect  damage  is  likely  to  be  a  problem,  a  double-diffusion  method  may  be 
used.   Green,  peeled  posts  are  cold-soaked  in  a  solution  of  copper  sulfate,  followed 
by  a  second  soaking  in  sodium  chromate.   This  precipitates  copper  chromate  in  the 
wood,  making  it  toxic  to  fungi  and  insects.   Two-thirds  of  posts  so  treated  proved 
serviceable  after  12  years. 


53 


ECONOMICS  OF  MACHINERY  CHOICE 
IN  CORN  PRODUCTION 


Technological  developments  in  all  phases  of  corn  production  have  occurred  rapidly  dur- 
ing the  last  twenty  years.   Two  of  the  most  important  as  they  affect  the  choice  of 
machinery  are  field  shelling  and  planting  rows  closer  together--commonly  referred  to 
by  the  misnomer  "narrow  rows." 

Field  shelling  was  almost  insignificant  as  recently  as  1956,  when  96  percent  of 
the  corn  acreage  for  grain  in  Illinois  was  harvested  by  mechanical  corn  pickers.  Even 
in  1960,  the  figure  was  80  percent,  but  by  1966  only  43  percent  of  the  corn  was  har- 
vested by  corn  pickers,  and  85  percent  of  the  field-shelled  corn  was  harvested  by  com- 
bines. 

Planting  rows  closer  together  allows  earlier  shading  of  the  ground,  which  helps 
in  weed  control  and  reduces  the  rate  of  evaporation  of  soil  moisture.   It  also  allows 
for  more  equal  distribution  of  sunlight  to  the  corn  plants.   Expected  higher  yields 
have  not  always  been  realized,  but  increased  plant  population  per  acre  along  with  im- 
proved cultural  practices  have  resulted  in  a  continuing  increase  in  yield,  amounting 
to  about  5  percent  above  yields  obtained  from  conventional  plantings  with  rows  40 
inches  apart. 

With  relatively  high  labor  cost  and  an  abundance  of  capital,  many  farmers  have 
been  substituting  capital  investment  for  labor  by  enlarging  farm  size  and  by  investing 
in  larger  field  machinery. 

(From  Station   Bulletin   729,   April,    1968.) 


54 


EMBRYO  SURVIVAL  IN  PIGS 


The  number  of  pig  embryos  at  day  25  of  gestation  is  ordinarily  about  65  percent  to 
70  percent  of  the  number  of  corpora  lutea.  Intrauterine  crowding  has  been  proposed 
as  one  of  the  possible  causes  of  reduction  in  number  of  live  embryos. 

Studies  by  P.J.  Dziuk  and  associates  in  the  Department  of  Animal  Science  were 
designed  to  test  the  effect  of  uterine  crowding  by  changing  the  length  of  the  uterine 
segment  available  to  each  embryo.  In  some  gilts,  the  uterus  was  ligated  so  that  em- 
bryos on  one  side  of  the  ligature  had  only  half  as  much  uterine  space  per  embryo  as 
was  available  to  embryos  on  the  other  side.  In  other  gilts,  fertilized  eggs  were 
transferred  from  donor  gilts  so  that  the  number  of  eggs  in  the  recipient  was  approx- 
imately doubled,  both  donor  and  recipient  having  been  mated  four  days  before  the  transfer. 

Embryo  survival  was  unaffected  when  the  uterine  space  per  embryo  was  greater  or 
smaller  than  normal.  Only  when  the  average  number  of  embryos  was  at  least  14  did  it 
appear  likely  that  uterine  crowding  was  a  possible  limiting  factor  in  embryo  surviv- 
al. It  was  concluded  that  intrauterine  crowding  is  unlikely  to  be  an  important  factor 
in  early  embryonal  losses  under  usual  conditions. 

In  a  related  study,  embryos  were  restricted  to  specific  portions  of  the  uterus 
either  by  ligating  the  uterine  horn  at  a  certain  point,  or  by  flushing  embryos  from 
one  uterine  horn  and  ligating  the  uterine  body.  A  non-gravid  segment  as  long  as  one- 
sixth  of  the  uterus  did  not  interfere  with  continuation  of  pregnancy.  Neither  did  a 
non-gravid  segment  as  long  as  one-third  prevent  pregnancy,  but  the  percent  of  gilts 
pregnant  was  reduced  significantly  (P  <  .05)  from  control  levels  in  one  group  but 
not  in  another.  Pregnancy  was  maintained  in  only  one  of  42  gilts  when  one-half  or 
two-thirds  of  the  uterus  was  unoccupied. 


55 


EUROPEAN  CORN  BORER  IN  ILLINOIS 


The  European  corn  borer  (Pyrausta  nubilatis)   was  first  discovered  in  Illinois  in 
1939,  and  by  1942  had  been  found  in  all  but  six  counties.  It  increased  in  numbers 
gradually  until  1944,  and  then  more  rapidly  in  1945  and  1946.   Thereafter  the  num- 
bers varied  according  to  weather  conditions  and  corn  planting  dates.  It  soon  became 
the  No.  1  agricultural  insect  pest  in  the  state,  causing  losses  estimated  at  38  mil- 
lion bushels  of  corn  in  1954  and  64  million  in  1955. 

Ten  years  before  the  borer  had  moved  as  far  west  as  Illinois,  W.P.  Flint,  W.P. 
Hayes,  and  J.D.  DeCoursey  in  the  Natural  History  Survey,  in  cooperation  with  W.L. 
Burlison  and  G.H.  Dungan  in  the  Department  of  Agronomy,  were  searching  for  varieties 
of  corn  that  would  yield  well  and  be  somewhat  tolerant  of  moderate  infestations  of 
the  borer.  Forty-five  different  strains  of  Illinois  dent  corn  and  17  selections  of 
sweet  corn  were  grown  for  one  or  more  years  in  plots  near  Toledo,  Ohio,  to  test  their 
performance  under  borer  conditions.  A  few  varieties  yielded  well  in  spite  of  infes- 
tations that  averaged  10  borers  to  a  stalk. 

The  1930  studies  showed  that  dry  weather  helps  to  reduce  the  borer  population. 
More  than  three  times  as  many  eggs  were  laid  in  the  Ohio  area  in  1930  as  in  1929, 
but  dry  weather  cut  the  population  to  about  half  what  it  was  in  1929.   At  the  same 
time,  better  plowing  methods  for  complete  coverage  of  corn  stalks  were  being  devel- 
oped by  A.L.  Young  in  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Engineering,  in  cooperation  with 
R.B.  Gary,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

It  was  soon  observed  that  the  moths  are  attracted  to  the  largest  corn  for  egg- 
laying,  which  means  that  early-planted  corn  is  likely  to  be  most  heavily  infested. 
One  count  in  1947  showed  that  almost  twice  as  many  eggs  were  deposited  on  sweet  corn 
planted  on  May  6  as  on  a  second  planting  made  on  May  15.   Later  observations  confirm- 
ed that  on  corn  only  18  to  20  inches  tall  (measured  by  pulling  a  leaf  tip  straight 
up),  100  borer  eggs  will  usually  produce  no  more  than  2  mature  borers,  whereas  on 
corn  in  the  early  tassel  stage,  100  eggs  may  produce  25  mature  borers. 

Some  imported  parasites  have  proved  helpful  in  corn  borer  control.  One  European 
parasitic  fly  (Ly  delta  stabutans  griseoens) ,  colonized  in  Illinois  in  1944,  was  cred- 
ited with  destroying  about  40  percent  of  each  brood  of  borers  in  1950. 

Several  production  practices  have  combined  to  reduce  damage  by  the  European  corn 
borer  to  reasonable  levels: 

1.  Destroying  infested  plant  residues  and  weeds  by  plowing  them  under. 

2.  Proper  planting  dates,  normally  not  before  May  15  on  fertile  soils  in  in- 
fested areas  and  not  after  May  25. 

3.  Use  of  hybrid  varieties  or  strains  tolerant  of  the  borer. 

4.  Heavier  planting--more  plants  per  acre  with  appropriate  fertilization  —  thus 
distributing  the  egg  cases  over  a  large  plant  population. 

5.  Harvesting  corn  by  combine,  so  that  no  cobs  are  stored  in  cribs  to  make  it 
easy  for  the  insect  to  survive  over  winter. 

If  all  these  practices  are  followed,  and  if  weather  conditions  are  reasonably 
favorable,  it  is  no  longer  necessary  to  use  insecticides  except  under  emergency  conditions. 


56 


EXPANDED  FOOD  AND  NUTRITION  EDUCATION  PROGRAM 


The  Illinois  Expanded  Food  and  Nutrition  Program,  carried  out  by  Home  Economics 
Extension  staff  members,  is  part  of  a  nationwide  program  originated  through  spe- 
cial funds  made  available  by  the  USDA,  and  began  in  Illinois  January  1,  1969  in 
18  counties. 

The  principal  objective  in  Illinois  is  to  help  program  assistants  in  the  coun- 
ties and  the  persons  with  whom  they  work  to  improve  their  family  diets.   Special 
attention  is  given  to  both  rural  and  urban  families  with  limited  income,  helping 
the  homemaker  to  understand  the  importance  of  good  nutrition  to  the  well-being  of 
her  family,  to  develop  new  skills  in  food  preparation,  and  to  budget  her  food  dol- 
lar so  as  to  make  the  most  economical  decisions.   In  an  effort  to  reach  the  total 
family,  children  as  well  as  adults  are  taught  food  and  nutrition.   In  1974  the 
program  enrolled  about  11,000  families  and  about  4,000  youth.   It  was  active  in 
more  than  a  third  of  the  counties.   Each  month,  program  assistants  were  in  contact 
with  about  3,000  families  other  than  regular  program  participants. 

Families  that  need  to  be  reached  by  this  program  seldom  attend  group  meetings,  but 
most  of  them  will  respond  to  individual  visits  during  which  they  can  receive  help 
with  their  specific  problems.   In  1974  more  than  250  people  from  the  low-income 
communities  were  employed  as  program  assistants  to  make  these  visits.   They  received 
supervision  and  training  from  the  local  county  extension  adviser  in  home  economics, 
after  which  they  in  turn  used  the  neighbor-to-neighbor  approach  to  provide  an  in- 
formal exchange  of  information  during  their  visits  in  homes.   This  approach  has 
proved  highly  successful.   Program  assistants  also  worked  with  small  groups  of 
hememakers  and  with  youth  in  clubs  and  classes.   In  addition,  they  often  recruited 
and  trained  volunteers  from  the  target  audience  to  work  with  adult  and  youth  groups. 

The  most  successful  program  assistants  are  likely  to  be  those  who  live  in  a 
low-income  community.   They  are  already  familiar  with  local  conditions  and  are  not 
overwhelmed  by  the  many  problems  they  find.   They  want  others  to  know  and  to  be 
able  to  take  advantage  of  what  they  themselves  have  learned. 

-  In  general,  the  program  assistants  try  to  explain  the  principles  of  good  nutri- 
tion by  teaching  the  importance  of  balanced  diets,  meal  planning,  how  to  budget  mo- 
ney, how  to  shop  economically,  safe  food  handling,  sanitation,  how  to  preserve  food, 
and  how  to  prepare  attractive,  nutritious,  economical  meals.   They  are  often  able 
to  help  homemakers  take  advantage  of  food  stamps  or  other  community  resources. 

Programs  vary  from  county  to  county,  from  assistant  to  assistant,  and  from  fam- 
ily to  family.   And  of  course  results  also  vary.   Some  families  have  shown  great  im- 
provement, others  much  less.   EFNEP  has  shown  that  low-income  families  will  respond 
when  appropriate  methods  and  tools  are  used.   Families  have  increased  the  variety 
of  food  eaten,  and  have  improved  their  nutritional  level  while  operating  on  limit- 
ed budgets.   Both  adults  and  youth  are  beginning  to  take  part  in  other  extension 
activities.   By  and  large,  extension  staff  personnel  have  found  their  efforts  worth- 
while and  have  been  well  pleased  with  the  overall  results. 


57 


FACTORIAL  METHODS  OF  ESTIMATING  NUTRIENT  REQUIREMENTS 


The  factorial  approach  to  the  estimation  of  nutrient  requirements  of  animals  was  brief- 
ly described  by  H.H.  Mitchell  in  1929  when  he  wrote: 

The  problem  of  the  nutrient  requirements  of  animals  is  solved  satisfactorily  only 
when  it  is  factored  into  its  ultimate  and  independent  terms.  The  amount  of  pro- 
tein required  to  nourish  a  pregnant  heifer  in  milk  cannot  be  applied  directly  to 
another  differing  in  size,  stage  of  gestation,  or  rate  of  milk  production,  nor 
can  a  satisfactory  correction  be  made  for  such  differences  unless  the  require- 
ment for  each  independent  function  is  known,  and  some  information  is  at  hand  rel- 
ative to  the  manner  of  its  change  with  size,  time,  or  intensity  of  functioning. 

This  approach  to  the  estimation  of  nutrient  requirements  of  various  species  of 
farm  animals  was  used  by  Mitchell  and  co-workers  with  a  high  degree  of  success  over  a 
period  of  many  years.   Thus  if  E  be  the  minimum  endogenous  loss  to  the  animal  per  day, 
determining  the  maintenance  requirement  of  protein,  and  G  be  the  daily  increment  in 
tissue  nitrogen  during  growth,  the  total  requirement  of  conventional  net  protein  by  a 
growing  animal  would  be,  according  to  the  procedure  outlined  above,  Rn  =  6.25(E  +  G), 
there  being  no  appreciable  requirement  of  protein  for  incidental  muscular  activity. 

Other  functional  activities  involving  storage  or  elaboration  of  protein  within 
the  tissues,  as  in  pregnancy  or  milk  production,  would  be  included  in  the  parentheti- 
cal term  in  the  equation  as  occasion  demands. 

Carrying  the  endogenous  nitrogen  problem  a  step  further,  D.B.  Smuts,  working  in 
Mitchell's  laboratory,  and  using  mice,  rats,  guinea  pigs,  rabbits,  and  pigs,  found 
that: 

1.  The  total  endogenous  nitrogen  output,  and  hence  the  protein  requirement  for 
maintenance,  varies  more  nearly  with  body  surface  than  with  body  weight. 

2.  The  close  relationship  is  such  that  2  mg.  of  nitrogen  are  lost  daily  for  ev- 
ery calorie  of  basal  heat.   This  relationship  appears  to  apply  also  to  the 
human  species. 

3.  The  endogenous  catabolism  of  an  animal  (regardless  of  species)  may  be  esti- 
mated in  this  manner  from  its  basal  heat  production  as  accurately  as  the  lat- 
ter may  be  estimated  (under  the  best  conditions)  from  its  body  surface  or 
body  weight. 


58 


FARM  AND  HOME  WEEK 


Farm  and  Home  Week,  as  it  was  called  for  many  years,  had  its  beginning  in  1899  when 
a  group  of  17  farmers  organized  the  Illinois  Corn  Growers'  Association.   This  group 
joined  with  the  Illinois  Livestock  Breeders'  Association  in  holding  an  annual  winter 
meeting  in  Urbana.   Under  sponsorship  of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  this  became 
known  as  the  Corngrowers'  and  Stockmen's  Convention,  and  it  so  continued  until  1922. 

Meetings  lasted  for  two  weeks,  the  last  or  21st  meeting  dating  from  January  16 
to  27,  1922.   Daily  convention  sessions  were  held  each  morning  in  the  University  Au- 
ditorium, followed  by  morning  and  afternoon  sectional  meetings  on  soils,  farm  crops, 
farm  mechanics,  horticulture,  animal  husbandry,  dairy  husbandry,  dairy  manufactures, 
and  grain  and  cattle  judging.   An  evening  general  or  convention  session  was  held  in 
the  Auditorium. 

The  first  meeting  to  be  called  Farmers'  Week  was  held  January  22-26,  1923.   The 
printed  program  contained  the  following  announcement: 

For  21  years  there  has  been  held  annually  at  the  University  of  Illinois  a  meet- 
ing known  as  the  Corn  Growers'  and  Stockmens'  Convention.   After  careful  consid- 
eration by  all  of  the  interests  involved,  it  has  been  concluded  best  to  merge 
the  meeting  into  a  one- week  gathering  to  be  known  as  Farmers'  Week.   The  program 
for  the  week  is  especially  arranged  to  meet  the  needs  of  farmers  and  farmers' 
sons.   The  farm  as  a  unit  will  be  considered,  opening  and  closing  sessions  being 
devoted  to  subjects  of  basic  importance  to  agriculture.   Six  different  sections, 
with  some  15  class  periods  each,  will  be  devoted  to  lectures,  discussions,  and 
demonstrations.   You  can  choose  the  special  topics  that  will  do  you  the  most  good 
on  your  farm,  and  learn  new  and  better  ways  which  can  be  put  into  practice  in  your 
farming  operations  and  in  your  home. 

For  several  years,  beginning  in  1910,  a  "School  for  Housekeepers"  was  offered  by 
the  Department  of  Household  Science  (later  Home  Economics) .   In  1926  the  Home  Bureau 
Federation  began  participating  in  the  general  program,  and  in  1929  the  name  was  changed 
to  Farm  and  Home  Week.   In  1906  the  railroads  were  offering  a  special  rate  of  half- 
fare  plus  25  cents  for  a  round  trip  from  any  point  in  Illinois,  and  from  St.  Louis, 
Missouri,  to  Urbana  or  Champaign.   Reduced  rates  of  one  and  one-half  fare  (minimum 
$1.00)  were  still  being  offered  in  1923. 

During  a  10-year  period  for  which  records  are  available,  beginning  in  1947,  total 
registration  ranged  between  3,500  and  5,000  persons,  with  total  attendance  at  all  sec- 
tions during  the  week  running  about  25,000.  Beginning  in  1943,  arrangements  were  made 
to  broadcast  as  much  of  the  program  as  possible  over  the  university  radio  station  WILL. 

In  1958  the  name  Farm  and  Home  Week  was  changed  to  Farm  and  Home  Festival,  and 
the  time  shortened  to  three  days.   In  1962  the  name  was  again  changed  to  Farm  and  Home 
Science  Show,  and  the  date  changed  to  September  7  and  8.   Interest  was  shifting  to 
specialized  meetings  such  as  Agronomy  Day,  Cattle  Feeders'  Day,  Swine  Growers*  Day, 
and  the  like;  and  no  general  meetings  comparable  to  Farm  and  Home  Week  have  been  held 
since  1962. 


59 


FARM  BUSINESS  FARM  MANAGEMENT  ASSOCIATION 


The  Farm  Business  Farm  Management  cooperative  project  in  Illinois  was  a  direct  out- 
growth of  the  statewide  extension  project  in  farm  accounting  set  up  soon  after  pas- 
sage of  the  Smith-Lever  Extension  Act  in  1914.   A  farm  account  book  prepared  by  W. 
F.  Handschin  and  H.C.M.  Case  was  made  available  to  cooperating  farmers  early  in  1916. 
Farmers  were  given  help  in  starting  the  records  and  in  analyzing  the  results  of  their 
business  activity  at  the  end  of  each  year. 

As  the  number  of  cooperators  increased  and  the  value  of  farm  business  records 
came  to  be  more  fully  appreciated,  it  became  apparent  that  many  farmers  wanted  more 
detailed  assistance  with  their  records,  even  if  they  had  to  pay  some  of  the  direct 
cost.   The  first  move  in  this  direction  was  made  in  January,  1925,  when  a  group  of 
about  230  farmers  met  at  El  Paso  and  agreed  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  form  a 
four-county  association  (Livingston,  McLean,  Tazewell,  and  Woodford)  so  that  they 
might  have  a  well-qualified  man  working  with  them  on  a  full-time  basis.   That  man 
was  M.L.  Mosher,  who  in  1928  returned  to  the  University  of  Illinois  Cooperative  Ex- 
tension Service  to  direct  the  Farm  Business  Farm  Management  Associations  as  they 
developed  in  other  parts  of  the  state.   He  was  succeeded  as  fieldman  for  the  Pioneer 
Farm  Business  Farm  Management  Association  by  J.B.  Andrews.   The  next  year  the  num- 
ber of  cooperators  jumped  to  420,  and  W.A.  Herrington  joined  Andrews  in  serving  them. 
The  service  continued  to  develop  until  in  1954  there  were  24  fieldmen  working  with 
4,400  cooperators,  and  in  1972  there  were  10  associations,  with  all  102  counites 
participating,  43  fieldmen,  and  6,800  cooperators. 

About  one  out  of  every  four  commercial  farmers  in  Illinois  with  gross  sales  of 
$40,000  or  more  enrolls  in  the  service.  Participation  in  the  program  is  voluntary, 
and  cooperating  farmers  pay  a  fee  for  the  educational  services  rendered.  The  Asso- 
ciation itself  is  a  non-profit  organization. 

The  heart  of  the  service  is  the  fieldman,  who  may  serve  as  many  as  170  coopera- 
tors.  He  makes  a  minimum  of  three  visits  a  year  to  each  farm,  and  while  there  he 
checks  the  entries  in  the  Farm  Business  Record  to  see  that  inventories  are  reason- 
able, cash  transactions  properly  entered,  feed  records  kept  up  to  date,  and  other 
pertinent  information  recorded--such  as  applications  of  commercial  fertilizers,  crop 
yields,  use  of  pasture,  and  any  other  data  important  in  studying  the  farm  business. 
After  checking  the  records,  the  fieldman  uses  the  rest  of  his  visit  to  help  the  co- 
operator  with  any  problems  he  may  have,  such  as  business  management,  farm  planning, 
crop  selection,  livestock  management,  farmstead  and  building  investments,  and  modern 
equipment  for  the  home. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  the  fieldman  assists  each  cooperator  in  completing  his 
farm  business  record,  making  sure  that  inventories,  cash  accounts,  feed  records,  and 
miscellaneous  data  are  all  complete.  In  the  early  years  all  records  were  summarized 
at  the  University  of  Illinois,  but  now  they  are  totaled  in  the  local  areas  by  cleri- 
cal assistants,  entered  on  computer  forms,  and  sent  to  a  central  computer  facility 
for  processing.   The  computer  programs  are  written  to  prepare  for  each  cooperator 
an  analysis  of  his  own  farm  business  as  shown  by  his  records,  and  to  show  how  his 
farm  compares  with  other  farms  in  the  area  with  respect  to  various  factors  that  af- 
fect efficiency.   Additional  reports  include  a  balance  sheet,  a  cash  flow  summary, 
and  a  complete  depreciation  schedule. 

60 


Usually  three  group  meetings  are  held  each  year:  one  in  the  spring  to  present 
some  of  the  findings  from  the  preceding  year's  records;  a  tour  in  the  summer  to  study 
problems  and  methods  on  the  farms  of  some  of  the  cooperators;  and  a  meeting  in  De- 
cember to  discuss  current  problems,  closing  of  the  records,  and  income  tax  matters. 

An  annual  summary  is  issued  as  a  Cooperative  Extension  Service  circular  that 
covers  such  matters  as  farm  business  trends  during  the  year,  crop  and  livestock  prices, 
and  income  changes.  Labor  and  management  earnings  are  shown  by  size  of  farm,  measured  by 
acres  of  tillable  land;  and  by  type  of  farm--grain,  hog,  beef ,  or  dairy--together  with  ta- 
bles showing  the  effect  of  various  items  on  costs  and  returns.  One  example  of  the  kind  of 
summary  information  contained  in  the  report  is  the  15-year  average  returns  (1957-1971) 
per  $100  worth  of  feed  fed  to  different  classes  of  livestock: 

Beef-cow  Dairy-cow   Feeder    Native    Feeder   Hogs   Poultry 
herds     herds    cattle    sheep      pigs 

bought    raised 

$142      $192      $129      $123      $133    $163    $151 

The  differences  between  the  average  return  figure  and  $100  feed  cost  represents 
the  margin  available  to  pay  for  labor,  depreciation  on  equipment,  cash  expenses  other 
than  feed,  and  interest  on  investment,  as  well  as  to  provide  a  profit. 

Benefits  of  this  program  are  reflected  in  the  continuous  adjustments  taking  place 
in  farm  organization  on  the  farms  enrolled.   These  adjustments  have  resulted  in  more 
specialization  on  farms  and  higher  net  incomes  per  farm.   A  sizeable  number  of  the 
state's  most  successful  corn,  soybean,  and  hog  farms  are  an  outgrowth  of  this  program. 

The  records  continue  to  show  the  comparative  advantage  of  producing  corn  and 
soybeans.   In  1971  over  60  percent  of  the  farms  enrolled  were  classified  as  grain 
farms.   Their  average  size  had  increased  from  379  acres  in  1960  to  552  acres  in  1971, 
while  the  average  operator's  labor  and  management  earnings  increased  from  $5,280  to 
$15,269  per  farm.   More  farm  families  continue  to  enroll  in  this  program  each  year, 
and  they  continue  to  support  this  cooperative  venture  with  their  College  of  Agricul- 
ture in  order  to  insure  the  flow  of  relevant  educational  information. 


61 


FARM  COST  ACCOUNTING 


Detailed  farm  cost  accounting  was  initiated  by  W.F.  Handschin  while  he  was  a  member 
of  the  staff  in  the  Department  of  Animal  Husbandry,  and  the  first  complete  calendar- 
year  cost  records  were  gathered  in  Franklin  and  Hancock  Counties  in  1913.   Franklin 
was  chosen  to  represent  southern  Illinois  diversified  farming,  and  Hancock  represented 
beef  cattle  and  hog  farming.   The  work  was  gradually  expanded  to  include  all  of  the 
principal  types  of  farming  in  the  state,  and  later  to  involve  a  number  of  single- 
enterprise  cost  studies. 

The  total-farm  cost  studies  involved  detailed  study  of  all  enterprises  on  the 
farm.   This  required  financial  records  of  sales  and  purchases  for  each  enterprise; 
physical  records  of  crop  and  livestock  production  and  of  feed  used  by  livestock; 
daily  diaries  of  labor,  power,  and  capital  items;  and  inventory  records  of  livestock, 
feed,  capital,  and  land.   Reports  of  these  studies  included  costs  of  producing  crops, 
livestock,  labor,  power,  and  machine  services. 

The  single-enterprise  and  single  power  or  machine  service  studies  were  similar 
in  concept,  except  that  they  involved  only  records  of  those  costs  associated  with  a 
particular  enterprise  or  machine, 

Each  cooperating  farmer  was  visited  by  a  fieldman  at  the  beginning  of  the  year 
to  assist  with  the  beginning  inventory  and  to  make  sure  that  the  necessary  record 
keeping  was  understood  by  the  person  who  was  to  maintain  the  detailed  accounts  and 
other  records.   Farm  visits  by  the  fieldman  continued  throughout  the  year  until  the 
closing  inventory  was  made  and  the  records  sent  to  Urbana  to  summarizing.   Up  to  and 
including  1922,  farmer  cooperators  were  visited  by  a  fieldman  once  a  month.   Later 
the  practice  was  to  make  five  visits  a  year. 

The  major  objectives  of  the  various  cost  studies  were: 

1.  To  obtain  a  workable  set  of  standards  for  quantities  of  labor,  power,  feed, 
etc.,  per  acre  and  per  animal  unit  for  use  in  farm  planning. 

2.  To  learn  the  effect  of  yield  per  acre  on  cost  per  unit  of  crop  production 
the  effect  of  pounds  of  feed  per  unit  of  livestock  production  on  returns  from  live- 
stock and  the  effect  of  varying  levels  of  production  per  animal  unit  on  the  cost  per 
unit  of  production. 

3.  To  learn  the  effect  of  size  of  field  on  hours  of  labor  required  per  acre 
and  per  unit  of  crop  production. 

4.  To  learn  what  effect  the  quality  of  land  has  on  yield  of  the  crop  grown 
and  how  quality  is  related  to  the  individual  items  of  cost. 

5.  To  determine  labor  costs  under  the  several  farming  systems  and  the  sources 
of  labor- -farm  operator,  family,  or  hired. 

6.  To  learn  the  effect  of  annual  hours  of  use  on  tractor  cost  per  hour  and  the 
effect  of  miles  driven  on  truck  cost  per  mile. 

7.  To  measure  the  acre  costs  of  individual  power-drawn  field  machines  in  re- 
lation to  the  number  of  acres  covered  yearly. 

Numerous   staff  members   and   graduate   students   have   been   involved   in    these   studies. 
Leaders   have   been  R.H.    Wilcox,    A.G.    Mueller,    and   R.A.    Hinton. 

62 


8.   To  learn  the  effect  on  farm  returns  of  such  variables  as  system  of  farming, 
soil  productivity  rating,  topography,  size  of  business,  and  kind  and  amount  of  live- 
stock . 

Although  the  cost  studies  were  initiated  to  help  cooperating  farmers  make  wise 
decisions  affecting  the  operation  of  their  individual  farms,  the  accumulated  records 
have  provided  a  basis  for  numerous  research  studies,  the  results  of  which  could  be 
disseminated  for  much  wider  use.   The  yearly  summaries  have  been  useful  in  on-campus 
teaching  and  in  answering  questions  raised  by  many  farmers  not  actively  involved  in 
the  record-keeping  program. 

Publications 

The  following  Experiment  Station   Bulletins  and  Agricultural  Economics  Research 
Reports  are  representative  of  the  type  of  material  made  available  from  the  sixty  years 
of  detailed  farm  cost  accounting. 

Bulletin  277.  Cost  of  Producing  Field  Crops  in  Three  Areas  of  Illinois,  1913-1922. 
30p.  June,  1926 

Bulletin  374.  Management  Factors  that  Influence  Farm  Profits  in  Southern  Illinois. 
A  study  based  on  records  from  more  than  a  hundred  farms  in  the  wheat 
and  dairy  area  neighboring  St.  Louis.   56p.  October,  1931 

Bulletin  395.  A  Study  of  the  Cost  of  Horse  and  Tractor  Power  on  Illinois  Farms. 
68p.  December,  1933 

Bulletin  428.  Soybean  Costs  and  Production  Practices.   48p.    December,  1936 

Bulletin  444.  Farm  Practices  and  Their  Effects  on  Farm  Earnings.   136p.  August,  1938 

Bulletin  467.  Twenty-five  Years  of  Illinois  Crop  Costs,  1913-1937.  98p.  August,  1940 

Bulletin  486.  Poultry  Costs  and  Profits.   A  six-year  study  of  general  farm  flocks 
and  semi -commercial  flocks.   32p.  April,  1942 

Bulletin  511.  Cost  of  Producing  Milk  in  Northern  Illinois.   24p.  June,  1945 

Bulletin  515.  Cost  of  Producing  Milk  in  the  Illinois  Portion  of  the  St.  Louis  Milk- 
shed.   24p.  August,  1945 

Bulletin  609.  Field  Crop  Costs  and  Returns,  1948-1954.   A  study  of  costs  and  returns 
in  four  major  type-of- farming  areas  of  Illinois.   42p.  March,  1957 

Bulletin  647.  Economic  Performance  of  Commercial  Laying  Flocks  on  Illinois  Farms. 
44p.  November,  1959 

Agricultural    Economics   Research  Reports 

AERR  15.  Detailed  Cost  Report  for  Northern  Illinois,  1955.  38p. 

AERR  21.  Same  for. 1956.  40p. 

AERR  28.  Same  for  Heavy  Till  Soils  in  Central  Illinois,  1957.  40p. 

AERR  32.  Same  for  1958.  40p. 

AERR  42.  Detailed  Cost  Report  for  Central  Illinois,  1959.  26p. 

AERR  48.  Same  for  1960.  30p. 

AERR  85.  Same  for  Central  and  Western  Illinois,  1964  and  1965.  36p . 


63 


Total-Farm  Detailed  Cost  Studies 


Years 


Type  of  Farm 


Ave .  number 
of  farms 


Area 


1913-22   Diversified  grain 

and  mixed  livestock 

1923-25  Beef  cattle  and  hog 

1924-26  Dairy 

1924-25  Dairy 

1926-28  Dairy 

1920-47   Cash  grain  and 
mixed  livestock 

1948-49   Grain,  hog,  feeder 

cattle-hog,  beef  cat 
tie-hog,  dairy-hog 

1949-50   Dairy-hog,  feeder 
cattle-hog 

1951-52   Grain,  hog,  feeder 
cattle-hog 

1953-54   Dairy,  mixed  live- 
stock and  grain 


1955-56   Dairy 

1955-56   Feeder  cattle-hog 


1957-58   Grain,  dairy-poultry 
and  fatstock 

1959-60   Grain  and  mixed  live- 
stock 

1964-65   Specialized  hog 


16 

18 
10 
10 
18 
24 

37 

39 
38 
46 

7 
33 

37 

38 

40 


Franklin,  Hancock 

Knox,  Warren 

DuPage,  Lake  Stephenson 

Clinton,  Madison,  Washington 

Clinton 

Champaign,  Piatt 

Henry,  Knox,  Mercer,  Peoria, 
Rock  Island,  and  Stark 

Carroll,  Jo  Daviess,  Ogle,  Steph- 
enson, Whiteside,  Winnebago 

Cass,  Logan,  Mason,  Menard, 
Morgan ,  Sangamon 

Bond,  Clay,  Clinton,  Crawford, 
Effingham,  Fayette,  Jasper,  Madi- 
son, Marion,  Richland,  St.  Clair, 
Washington 

DeKalb,  Kane,  McHenry 

Bureau,  DeKalb,  Kendall,  LaSalle, 
Lee 

Ford,  Iroquois,  Livingston, 
McLean,  Vermilion 

Champaign,  Coles,  DeWitt,  Doug- 
las, Macon,  Moultrie,  Piatt 

Cass,  Douglas,  Ford,  Fulton,  Knox, 
Livingston,  Logan,  McDonough,  McLean 
Mercer,  Menard,  Peoria,  Sangamon, 
Tazewell,  Warren,  Woodford 


64 


Single-Enterprise   Cost   Studies 


Year 


Enterprise 


Ave.  number 
of  farms 


Area 


1925-38   Fruit  and  vegetables 


1927-28   Dairy 


1928-29 

1932-37 

1936-37 

1937 

1938-39 

1945-47 
1954 


1962 
1971 


Year 


30 


1928-29   Dairy 


Soybeans 

Poultry  laying  flocks 

Dairy 

Sweet  corn 

Dairy 

Turkeys 

Poultry  laying  hens 


100 
30 
90 
56 
93 

16 
118 


Vegetable  crops 
Vegetable  crops 


Jackson,  Jefferson,  Johnson,  Marion, 
Pulaski,  Williamson 

Cook,  DuPage,  Kane,  Lake,  McHenry, 
and  Will 

Boone,  Jo  Daviess,  LaSalle,  Lee, 
Ogle,  Peoria,  Stephenson,  Vermilion 

Central  and  southern  Illinois 

All  areas 

12  counties  of  northern  Illinois 

Central  and  southern  Illinois 

12  counties  of  southwestern  Illinois 
in  St.  Louis  milk  shed 

Scattered  over  Illinois 

Cook,  DeKalb,  Kane,  Will  in  north; 
Ford,  Iroquois,  Livingston,  Ver- 
milion, Woodford  in  central;  Effing- 
ham, Fayette,  St.  Clair,  Washington 
in  south 

9  counties  in  northeastern  Illinois 

9  counties  in  northeastern  Illinois 


Item 


Special   Farm  Power  and  Machine  Cost   Studies 

Ave .  number 
of  farms 


Area 


1927-28   Grain  combine  harvester  73 

1931      Horse  35 

1931-32   Farm  tractor  65 

1937      2-row  mechanical  corn  96 
picker 

1942-43   Pick  baler  vs.  loose  hay  24 

1951      Farm  field  crop  sprayers  47 

1954-55   Picker-sheller  and  corn  77 
combine  and  artificial 
corn  dryers 


All  areas 
Central  Illinois 
Central  Illinois 
East-central  Illinois 

East-central  Illinois 
Christian,  Henry,  Livingston 
Central  and  northern  Illinois 


65 


FARM  INCOME  TAX  SCHOOLS 


The  Cooperative  Extension  Service  has  offered  annual  farm  income  tax  schools  for  more 
than  thirty  years.   In  1940  two  such  schools  were  held,  one  in  Springfield  and  one 
in  DeKalb,  with  M.L.  Mosher  and  R.C.  Ross,  respectively,  representing  the  College 
of  Agriculture.   Beginning  in  1943,  four  schools  were  held  annually,  in  DeKalb,  Cham- 
paign, Jacksonville,  and  Mt .  Vernon.   In  1957  two  more  were  added,  in  Galesburg  and 
Vandalia.   From  1962  on,  the  number  gradually  increased  until  in  1977  there  were  23 
schools  held,  with  a  total  enrollment  of  3,976  persons,  representing  every  county 
in  Illinois,  as  well  as  some  nearby  states. 

R.C.  Ross  continued  in  charge  of  the  schools  until  1955,  when  G.B.  Whitman  took 
over  the  responsibility.   Since  1961,  Fay  M.  Sims,  has  been  in  charge,  with  assis- 
tance from  A.R.  Allen,  Charles  Whalen,  Joseph  Henderson,  and  C.  Allen  Bock.  Professor 
Bock  has  been  largely  responsible  for  the  preparation  of  the  workbook,  school  agenda, 
teacher  preparation,  visual  aids,  evaluation,  and  selection  of  reference  materials. 

The  schools  are  designed  for  tax  practitioners  and  consultants  who  enroll  in  ad- 
vance, and  are  not  open  to  the  general  public.   The  schools  were  given  without  cost 
to  participants  until  1967,  when  a  $4  enrollment  fee  was  charged.   In  1977  the  fee 
was  $25,  which  covered  all  tax  school  expenses  except  salary  and  travel  costs  (mile- 
age, room,  meals)  of  personnel  (Cooperative  Extension  Service,  Internal  Revenue  Serv- 
ice t  and  Illinois  Department  of  Revenue).   Collectively,  the  persons  who  attended 
the  1977  schools  prepared  about  a  million   federal  income  tax  returns,  and  three- 
quarters  of  a  million  state  returns,  mostly  for  farm  people. 

Since  early  1950,  the  Internal  Revenue  Service  has  joined  with  the  Cooperative 
Extension  Service  in  presenting  these  schools.   The  IRS  has  not  only  provided  excel- 
lent instructors,  but  has  assisted  with  the  planning  and  preparation  of  teaching 
materials.   Since  1969,  with  the  passage  of  the  Illinois  income  tax  law,  the  Illinois 
Department  of  Revenue  has  also  joined  in  the  tax  school  effort  by  providing  instruc- 
tors and  helping  with  planning  and  with  teaching  materials.   This  support  by  IRS  and 
IDR  has  enabled  the  Cooperative  Extension  Service  to  continue  with  expansion  of  the 
tax  school  program. 

A  better  understanding  of  tax  problems  of  farmers  and  of  filing  requirements  is 
acquired  by  practitioners  attending  the  schools;  this  results  in  fewer  errors  and  a 
higher  percentage  of  properly  prepared  returns.   With  tax  laws  and  filing  specifica- 
tions increasing  in  both  number  and  complexity,  this  is  a  significant  benefit  to 
both  the  taxpayers  and  the  Internal  Revenue  Service.   Perhaps  as  many  as  half  of  the 
enrollees   attend  the  schools  because  there  is  no  other  place  where  they  can  obtain 
specific  and  complete  information  and  instructions  for  preparing  them. 

The  Workbook 

For  several  years  a  comprehensive  loose-leaf  workbook  of  about  300  pages  has  been 
prepared  by  the  Cooperative  Extension  Service  as  a  basis  for  the  instruction  given 
in  the  two-day  schools.   The  1977  workbook  consisted  of  an  introduction  rind  eleven 
chapters  titled  as  follows: 


66 


Capital  Gains  and  Losses 
What ' s  New 
Retirement  Plans 
Comprehensive  Farm  Problem 
Effects  of  1976  Tax  Reform 
1977  Tax  Simplification 
Back  to  Basics 
Partnership  Balance  Sheet 
Tax  Practitioner  Liability 
Investment  Credit 
Tax  Basis  Calculation 

There  was  also  a  directory  and  reference  section. 

Evaluation 

Each  year  enrol  lees  are  asked  to  complete  an  evaluation  form.  This  information 
is  then  used  as  a  basis  for  future  planning. 

The  format  and  plan  of  the  Illinois  farm  income  tax  schools  have  spread  to  other 
states  which,  in  turn,  are  patterning  their  programs  after  the  Illinois  plan.  Follow- 
ing a  pilot  school  on  the  Purdue  University  campus  in  1969,  for  example,  Purdue  Co- 
operative Extension  Service,  Indianapolis  IRS,  and  Indiana  Department  of  Revenue  or- 
ganized their  own  schools.   In  1971,  Michigan  State  University  and  Detroit  IRS  fol- 
lowed the  Illinois  lead  and  organized  their  first  schools.   In  1973,  the  Cooperative 
Extension  Services  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  and  Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute 
reorganized  their  tax  schools  along  the  Illinois  pattern.   By  1977,  fourteen  states 
besides  Illinois  were  purchasing  and  using  the  Illinois  workbook.   In  1971,  the 
Chicago  Association  of  Commerce  and  Industry  organized  the  first  urban  tax  seminars 
in  the  Chicago  metropolitan  area  patterned  after  the  farm  schools,  and  used  the  work- 
book as  the  main  text. 

Workshops  for  Beginning  Income   Tax  Preparers 

In  1971,  Donald  L.  Doerr,  area  extension  adviser  in  farm  management,  developed 
plans  and  materials  for  a  three-day  workshop  for  beginning  income  tax  preparers. 
The  pilot  workshop  was  presented  on  the  Cooperative  Extension  Service  TeleNet  System 
at  three  locations--Benton,  Carbondale,  and  Dixon  Springs,  with  21  beginners  attend- 
ing. Within  two  years  beginners'  workshops  were  being  offered  to  the  entire  state  via 
TeleNet. 


67 


FARM  LEASING  PRACTICES 


In  some  counties  in  east-central  Illinois  about  75  percent  of  all  farmland  is  operat- 
ed under  lease,  while  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state  nearly  60  percent  of  the  farms 
are  owner-operated.   This  sort  of  difference  reflects  such  characteristics  as  the 
price  of  land,  type  and  productivity  of  soil,  size  of  farms,  type  of  farming  (whether 
cash-grain  or  livestock),  and  percentage  of  rough  and  urttillable  land  in  the  area. 
Where  mixed  farming  prevails,  as  in  western  Illinois,  about  one-fourth  of  the  farms 
are  operated  by  part-owners  who  own  part  and  rent  part  of  the  land  they  operate. 

Studies  were  made  of  farm  leasing  practices  in  a  total  of  58  counties  represent- 
ing the  three  areas.   (See  Station  Bulletins  677,  728,  and  745  by  F.J.  Reiss.)   Some 
1,200  questionnaires  completed  by  a  random  sample  of  both  tenants  and  landlords  in 
each  area  were  studied,  to  provide  what  might  be  called  a  farm-rental  market  report 
which  would  be  helpful  to  both  landlords  and  tenants  in  working  out  details  of  lease 
arrangements. 

Individual  farms  vary  considerably  in  the  rent  they  can  command  because  they  dif- 
fer in  soil  productivity,  in  kind  and  amount  of  improvements,  and  in  how  well  they 
satisfy  the  demand  for  land  in  the  locality  when  they  come  on  the  rental  market. 
There  are  differences  too  among  tenants  in  the  amount  of  machinery  and  livestock  they 
have,  in  their  age  and  experience,  and  in  the  amount  of  family  labor  they  have  avail- 
able.  All  of  these  things  are  of  basic  importance  in  working  out  a  lease  that  will 
prove  satisfactory  to  both  parties. 

East-Central    Illinois 

The  important  lease  types  in  east-central  Illinois  are  crop-share  and  crop-share- 
cash,  accounting  for  more  than  80  percent  of  all  leases  in  the  area.   Livestock-share 
leases  account  for  13  percent.   Because  the  values  of  the  contributions  made  by  both 
parties  are  approximately  equal--land  and  improvements  by  the  landlord,  and  labor,  pow- 
er, and  machinery  by  the  tenant--the  prevailing  rent  shares  on  grain  crops  are  almost 
exclusively  half  and  half.   Such  variable  costs  as  crop  seeds,  annual  application  of 
fertilizers,  and  insect  control  are  shared  in  the  same  way.   Initial  applications  of 
limestone  and  rock  phosphate  are  commonly  paid  by  the  landlord,  with  repeat  or  main- 
tenance applications  frequently  being  shared  equally  by  tenant  and  landlord. 

Livestock- share  leases,  in  which  the  landlord  has  a  half  interest  in  the  major 
livestock  enterprises  and  receives  half  of  the  livestock  returns,  commonly  provide 
for  an  equal  sharing  of  such  costs  as  legume  and  grass  seeds,  hay  baling  and  silo  fill- 
ing, weed  control  chemicals,  livestock  expense  and  purchased  feed,  and  feed  grinding. 
Some  livestock  equipment  such  as  self-feeders,  waterers,  and  water  heaters  may  also 
be  shared.   Power  and  fuel  costs  are  shared  in  a  variety  of  ways. 

Three  out  of  every  four  landlords  are  farmers,  retired  farmers,  or  widows  of  farm- 
ers or  have  had  some  farm  experience,  and  most  live  within  5  0  miles  of  the  leased 
property.   In  general,  both  tenants  and  landlords  seemed  satisfied  with  their  lease 
agreements,  as  only  one  out  of  eight  made  suggestions  for  changes  when  returning  the 
questionnaires. 


68 


Western  Illinois 

The  same  types  of  farm  leases  were  found  as  in  east-central  Illinois,  but  livestock- 
share  leases  accounted  for  a  much  larger  proportion  of  farmland  because  more  of  the 
farms  were  livestock  farms.   Livestock-share  leases  often  assumed  partnership  aspects, 
as  indicated  by  the  fact  that  most  landlords  shared  equally  in  all  major  enterprises 
and  in  directly  related  costs.   Many  livestock-share  landlords  also  shared  in  owner- 
ship of  machinery  and  equipment. 

About  40  percent  of  the  landlords  were  women.   Almost  90  percent  of  the  landlords 
lived  within  an  hour's  drive  of  their  property. 

The  period  of  study  was  one  of  rapid  technological  change,  but  proportional  shar- 
ing of  costs  and  returns  tended  to  keep  leases  both  viable  and  equitable,  as  well  as 
to  provide  tenants  with  enough  tenure  security  to  encourage  them  to  adopt  much  of  the 
new  and  improved  technology. 

Southern  Illinois 

In  contrast  to  the  other  two  areas,  the  most  common  tenure  pattern  in  the  23 
counties  in  southern  Illinois  was  one  of  owner  operation.   In  spite  of  this,  about  45 
percent  of  all  farmland  in  the  area  is  under  lease  because  many  farm  operators  rent 
land  in  addition  to  that  which  they  own.   Most  rented  tracts  are  relatively  small, 
averaging  less  than  a  quarter-section  each.   Furthermore,  less  than  a  third  of  the 
leaseholds  involve  tracts  with  buildings.   This  often  means  that  a  tenant  must  rent 
from  more  than  one  owner  in  order  to  have  enough  acreage  for  profitable  operation. 
The  average  tenant  deals  with  three  different  landlords. 

Over  half  the  owners  surveyed  were  65  years  old  or  older,  nearly  40  percent  were 
women,  and  nearly  40  percent  were  related  in  some  way  to  the  tenant.   Cash  leases  ac- 
counted for  less  than  10  percent  of  the  leaseholds  studied,  primarily  because  of  the 
high  production  risk  in  the  area. 

Informality  seems  to  be  the  rule  for  farm  rental  in  this  part  of  the  state,  as 
only  a  small  fraction  of  the  rental  arrangements  involved  a  written  lease  and  many 
tenants  were  unable  to  specify  a  date  for  the  beginning  of  the  lease-year  on  their 
rented  properties.   Since  the  area  includes  a  portion  of  the  Ozark  uplift,  one  might 
hazard  the  guess  that  this  informality  in  farm  business  dealings  is  an  example  of  the 
background  of  mutual  trust  among  many  mountain  people,  who  live  in  areas  where  most 
families  tend  to  be  well  known  to  each  other. 


69 


FAT-CORRECTED  MILK 


In  the  early  1920's  W.L.  Gaines  in  the  Department  of  Dai ry  Husbandry,  assisted  by 
F.A.  Davidson,  used  23,303  records  of  milk  and  fat  production  from  cow-testing  asso- 
ciations in  Illinois  and  advanced  registry  records  from  several  breed  associations 
to  develop  a  formula  for  estimating  the  energy  value  of  mi  Ik- -a  formula  that  has  been 
used  internationally  for  more  than  50  years. 

It  had  long  been  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  among  dairymen  that,  in  general, 
the  milk  yields  of  cows  tended  to  vary  inversely  with  the  percentage  fat  content  of 
the  milk;  but  it  was  felt  that  a  mathematical  formula  expressing  the  relationship 
would  be  useful.   Assuming  that  the  milk  yield  of  cows  with  varying  fat  percentages 
is  such  that  the  total  energy  value  of  the  milk  is  constant  if  the  effects  of  all 
factors  other  than  composition  are  equalized,  the  question  then  became:   ''What  is  the 
influence  of  composition  on  milk  yield?"  Since  there  is  a  high  correlation  (about 
0.9)  between  fat  content  and  solids-not-fat  content  in  normal  milk,  the  authors  were 
able  to  derive  a  satisfactory  equation  for  "fat-corrected  milk"  in  pounds: 

FCM  =  (bnergy  yield)/ (Energy  of  1  pound  of  4-percent  milk) 
=  (132. 06M  +  4964F)/330.62 
=  0.4M  +  15F 

Where  M  is  actual  milk  yield  n  pounds  and  F  is  actual  fat  yield  in  pounds. 

In  summary,  the  milk  yields  of  cows  may  be  corrected  for  the  influence  of  fat 
content,  to  arrive  at  the  physiological  equivalent  of  4-pcrcent  milk  by  the  equation: 

FCM  =  .4M  +  15F 

Details  are  given  in  Station  Bulletin  245,  June,  1923. 


70 


FEEDING  STANDARDS  FOR  LAMBS 


Some  of  the  first  work  ever  done  on  determining  nutritive  requirements  for  growth  in 
Shropshire  lambs  by  chemical  carcass  analyses  was  carried  out  in  1931-32  by  H.H. 
Mitchell,  T.S.  Hamilton,  and  W.G.  Kammlade.   Analyses  of  both  rams  and  ewes  were  made 
at  successive  weights  between  20  and  140  pounds.   From  these  data  it  was  possible  to 
follow  the  changes  in  body  composition  with  age;  to  compute  the  percentage  composition 
of  the  gains  in  weight  put  on  at  different  ages;  and  to  estimate  the  daily  increments 
in  protein,  energy,  calcium,  and  phosphorus. 

These  increments  measured  the  nutritive  requirements  for  growth,  and  showed  for 
the  first  time  that  the  then  current  feeding  standards  included  more  protein  than  is 
actually  needed  for  lambs  weighing  more  than  50  pounds.  On  the  other  hand,  the  data 
indicated  that  a  more  liberal  allowance  of  total  digestible  nutrients  than  was  being 
recommended  would  be  desirable. 

Growth  of  wool  was  determined  by  shearing  all  lambs  before  slaughter  and  weigh- 
ing and  analyzing  the  fleece.   Growth  of  wool  was  very  slow  up  to  an  age  of  about  six 
weeks,  but  then  increased  rapidly  up  to  about  three  months  in  rams  and  to  five  or  six 
months  in  ewes.   Although  the  gross  energy  added  daily  to  the  fleece  made  up  only  a 
small  percentage  of  the  total  energy  retained,  never  more  than  16  percent,  the  wool 
accounted  for  30  to  40  percent  of  the  total  protein  additions  during  the  period  of 
active  wool  growth.   For  each  1,000  pounds  of  live  weight  of  young  rams  weighing  50 
pounds,  nearly  half  a  pound  of  protein  was  added  daily  to  the  fleece. 


71 


FILM  PACKAGING  OF  HEAT-PROCESSED  ORANGE  JUICE  PRODUCTS 


During  the  early  1950' s  A.I.  Nelson   and  M.P.  Steinberg  in  the  Department  of  Food 
Science  made  extended  studies  of  the  feasibility  of  using  film  packages  for  heat- 
processed   foods.    Many  different   films   were  compared  to   find  those   that 
were   suitable,   including  such  characteristics  as  ability  to  withstand  steam 
temperatures  of  250°  F.,  minimum  gas  and  water-vapor  permeability,  heat  penetration 
of  the  film,  and  effect  of  the  film  itself  on  color  or  flavor  of  various  food  prod- 
ucts.  They  also  developed  methods  of  testing  film  bags  for  leaks,  and  measuring 
the  strengths  of  various  films  and  seals  at  processing  and  storage  temperatures. 

Following  these  basic  studies,  they  undertook  further  research  involving  film 
packaging  of  heat-processed  orange  juice  products,  using  various  processing  proce- 
dures and  storage  conditions.   Freshly  squeezed  juice  from  Florida  oranges  was  com- 
pared with  a  completely  synthetic  product  composed  of  8.0  percent  sucrose,  1.0  per- 
cent citric  acid,  0.7  percent  potassium  citrate,  0.03  percent  (by  volume)  cold 
pressed  oil  of  orange,  and  90  percent  water.   Several  preservatives  were  evaluated 
as  additions.   Sorbic  acid  and  sodium  benzoate  were  found  to  be  undesirable,  while 
sulfur  dioxide  was  advantageous  in  preventing  juice  deterioration.   Of  the  several 
processing  temperatures  tested,  210°  F.  proved  best  for  single-strength  juice  and 
220°  F.  for  concentrated  juice. 

Peel  oil,  naturally  present  in  orange  juice,  did  not  cause  any  deterioration 
of  flavor,  but  the  effect  of  orange  juice  pulp  suggested  that  filtering  the  raw 
juice  might  be  desirable.   Since  the  films  used  were  transparent,  the  influence  of 
light  was  studied  and  found  to  be  without  effect  on  quality. 

Storage  studies  covered  a  period  of  twenty  weeks,  with  canned  juice  products 
used  as  controls.   The  addition  of  200  ppm  of  sulfur  dioxide  to  orange  juice,  and 
storage  at  low  temperature  (36°  F.)  greatly  retarded  deterioration.   Juice  packed 
in  Saran  or  in  aluminum-polyethylene  pouches  was  acceptable  after  five  months  of 
storage.   Concentrated  juice  tended  to  maintain  better  overall  quality  than  single- 
strength  juice. 

Conclusions  were  that  is  is  feasible  to  package  orange  juice,  or  preferably 
orange  juice  concentrate,  for  heat  processing  in  pouches  made  from  Saran  or  aluminum 
polyethylene.   Juice   in  these  pouches  should  maintain  a  quality  comparable  to 
that  in  cans  during  storage  for  five  months  at  36°  F.   If  sulfur  dioxide  is  added 
at  the  rate  of  200  ppm  to  juice  packed  in  aluminum-polyethylene  or  Saran,  the  juice 
can  be  held  for  five  months  at  temperatures  as  high  as  74°  F. 


72 


FOOD  FLAVORS  STUDIED  BY  MASS  SPECTROMETRY 


Years  ago  when  chemists  tried  to  isolate  and  identify  the  flavor  chemicals  of  fruits 
they  needed  literally  tons  of  a  particular  fruit  in  order  to  get  enough  of  a  given 
chemical  to  work  with.   Now,  by  the  use  of  a  mass  spectrometer  and  gas  chromatography, 
nearly  all  of  the  constituents  of  a  fruit  may  be  studied  from  a  much  smaller  sample-- 
even  as  small  as  a  single  strawberry.   This  kind  of  equipment  is  used  in  the  Burnsides 
Research  Laboratory. 

The  mass  spectrometer  is  a  complicated  instrument  which  works  as  follows:   A  va- 
por of  the  substance  being  studied  is  introduced  into  an  ionization  chamber,  where  it 
is  bombarded  by  a  beam  of  electrons.  This  breaks  each  molecule  into  a  number  of  small- 
er fragments  (ions)  whose  nature  depends  upon  the  chemical  structure  of  the  original 
molecule.   The  positively  charged  particles  are  then  repelled  from  the  ionization 
chamber  by  another  positive  charge,  and  the  resultant  beam  of  ions  is  further  accel- 
erated by  an  applied  voltage.   The  ion  beam  then  passes  through  a  narrow  slit  into  a 
magnetic  field,  where  the  ions  are  deflected. 

The  degree  of  deflection  depends  on  the  mass  of  the  individual  ions,  so  that  they 
are  separated  into  several  beams,  each  containing  ions  of  one  mass-to-charge  ratio. 
The  various  beams  are  scanned  and  brought  into  focus  on  an  appropriate  recording  de- 
vice, and  the  spectrum  can  then  be  interpreted  according  to  the  abundance  of  the  var- 
ious fragment  ions. 

A  gas  chromatograph  used  in  connection  with  the  other  equipment  makes  it  possi- 
ble to  work  with  very  small  samples,  giving  results  that  would  be  impossible  to  ob- 
tain by  any  other  means.   Hence  flavor  in  foods  can  be  studied  when  the  concentrations 
of  the  chemicals  involved  are  so  small  that  they  must  be  measured  in  parts  per  million. 

Researchers  are  also  interested  in  the  chemicals  responsible  for  off-flavors  that 
may  render  a  food  unacceptable.   Once  the  chemicals  causing  such  off -flavors  have 
been  identified  by  mass  spectrometry,  it  may  then  be  possible  to  find  ways  of  prevent- 
ing their  development. 

Although  this  type  of  equipment  is  not  a  cure-all,  it  is  a  powerful  research 
tool  for  many  kinds  of  agricultural  research. 


73 


4-H  CLUB  WORK 


The  name  4-H  was  not  officially  adopted  until  after  passage  of  the  Smith-Lever  Act 
in  1914,  but  boys'  and  girls*  clubs  had  been  organized  and  functioning  for  several 
years.   The  movement  got  its  start  in  Macoupin  County  when  Will  B.  Otwell  interested 
about  500  boys  in  a  corn-growing  contest.   He  gave  each  boy  one  ounce  of  the  best 
seed  corn  obtainable,  with  the  understanding  that  the  boy  would  show  a  sample  of 
his  crop  at  the  Farmers'  Institute  to  be  held  in  Carlinville  in  the  fall  of  1899.  The 
boys  came  to  the  court  house  on  the  opening  day  of  the  institute,  each  with  a  ten- 
ear  exhibit  of  corn.   More  than  500  farmers  were  also  present. 

Interest  in  the  program  quickly  spread  to  other  counties,  and  an   exhibit  of 
corn  at  the  1903  St.  Louis  World's  Fair,  supervised  by  Mr.  Otwell.  contained  ten- 
ear  samples  of  corn  from  1,250  Illinois  farm  boys  from  among  the  50.000  who  had  par- 
ticipated in  that  year's  corn-growing  contest. 

O.J.  Kern,  county  superintendent  of  schools  in  Winnebago  County,  organized  corn 
clubs  in  local  schools  and  gave  much  impetus  to  the  club  idea.   By  1910.  considerable 
interest  had  also  developed  in  pig  and  calf  club  work  for  boys  and  in  canning  clubs 
for  girls. 

War  conditions  stimulated  a  rapid  expansion  of  the  4-H  Club  program,  and  farm 
boys  and  girls  made  a  real  and  substantial  contribution  to  the  food  production  of 
the  nation.   After  the  war,  however,  there  was  a  decided  slump  in  club  membership, 
and  not  until  1930  did  enrollment  again  pass  the  10,000  mark.   From  then  on,  member- 
ship grew  to  37,682  in  1940,  54,407  in  1950,  and  73,051  in  1960. 


74 


FRUIT  CRACKING  RESISTANCE  IN  TOMATOES 


Fruit  cracking  has  long  been  a  serious  problem  for  commercial  producers  of  tomatoes 
as  well  as  a  minor  problem  for  home  gardeners.   Cracked  fruits  are  easily  invaded  by 
decay-causing  organisms,  and  the  cracks  offer  a  convenient  place  for  fruit  flies  to 
deposit  their  eggs.   Even  if  neither  of  these  conditions  develops,  cracked  fruits 
result  in  costly  trimming  losses  in  the  canning  factory. 

Researchers  in  the  Department  of  Horticulture  undertook  to  find  a  laboratory 
method  of  identifying  crack-resistance  fruits.   One  approach  was  to  soak  the  detach- 
ed fruits  in  a  water  bath  of  controlled  uniform  temperature.   The  release  of  air 
bubbles  from  the  stem  end  when  tomatoes  were  gently  squeezed  under  water  suggested 
that  partial  vacuum  might  be  used  as  a  testing  method.   Fruits  so  treated  absorbed 
water  as  soon  as  the  vacuum  was  released,  and  promptly  cracked  in  both  radial  and 
concentric  patterns  similar  to  those  observed  in  the  field. 

The  next  step  was  to  cross  two  unrelated  lines  that  had  been  found  relatively 
resistant  by  the  vacuum- immersion  test,  and  to  make  selections  for  resistance  among 
the  F2  plants.   The  two  lines  chosen  were  Cornell  59-400  and  Campbell  Soup  Company 
Kcl09.   Progenies  grown  from  selected  F  plants  resulted  in  types  with  both  higher 
and  lower  resistance  to  cracking  than  had  been  found  in  the  parents.   At  all  vacuum 
levels  used,  the  resistant  selections  were  more  highly  resistant  to  cracking  than 
the  parental  lines  from  which  they  were  developed.   It  was  concluded  that  selection 
for  the  highest  levels  of  resistance  can  be  most  effectively  accomplished  at  a  vac- 
uum of  about  10  inches  of  mercury. 


75 


FUNK  AWARDS  RECOGNITION  PROGRAM 


The  Paul  A.  Funk  Recognition  Program  was  established  in  June,  1970,  through  an  agree- 
ment between  the  Paul  A.  Funk  Foundation  of  Bloomington,  Illinois,  and  the  College  of 
Agriculture.  The  Foundation  agreed  to  provide  the  College  with  certain  funds  annual- 
ly, which  would  be  used  to  honor  outstanding  faculty  members  for  their  service  to 
agriculture.  The  College  agreed  to  accept  these  funds  through  the  University  of  Il- 
linois Foundation  and  to  select  the  faculty  members  to  be  honored. 

The  recognition  program  is  a  memorial  to  the  late  Paul  A.  Funk,  who  died  in 
1967.   A  principal  in  the  Funk  Bros.  Seed  Co.,  Paul  Funk  spent  his  life  in  agricul- 
ture. He  attended  the  University  of  Illinois  College  of  Agriculture  as  a  member  of 
the  class  of  1929. 

As  stated  by  the  trustees  of  the  Funk  Foundation,  the  purpose  of  the  program  is 
"to  recognize  outstanding  performance  and  high  achievement  among  the  faculty  of  the 
College  of  Agriculture  at  the  University  of  Illinois  as  they  work  for  the  betterment 
of  the  total  field  of  agriculture—agriculture  being  described  in  its  broadest  con- 
notations. It  is  also  the  expectation  that  this  program  will  serve  as  a  stimulus  for 
excellence  in  teaching,  research,  and  extension." 

To  be  eligible  for  an  award,  a  person  must  hold  an  appointment  in  the  College 
of  Agriculture,  and  must  have  been  on  the  faculty  for  at  least  five  years.  The  num- 
ber of  recipients  in  any  one  year  may  be  no  less  than  three  and  no  more  than  five. 
Each  award  winner  receives  an  unrestricted  personal  grant  of  $1,500  and  a  certifi- 
cate. Papers  by  each  of  the  winners  are  published  annually. 

According  to  procedures  established  by  the  College,  any  student  or  faculty  mem- 
ber of  the  College  of  Agriculture  may  nominate  a  candidate  for  the  award.  The  nomi- 
nees are  evaluated  by  one  or  more  of  three  screening  committees  named  by  the  educa- 
tion, research,  and  extension  policy  committees  of  the  College.  Final  selections  are 
made  by  a  committee  composed  of  the  vice  chairman  of  the  Faculty  Executive  Committee, 
one  member  of  each  screening  committee,  and  three  at-large  members  named  by  the  Fac- 
ulty Executive  Committee.  Recipients  in  1971,  the  first  year  of  the  award,  were  D.E. 
Alexander,  H.W.  Hannah,  H.B.  Petty,  H.G.  Russell,  and  G.W.  Salisbury. 


76 


GENE  INTERACTION  AND  THE  A-0  AND  H  BLOOD-GROUP  SYSTEMS  IN  PIGS 


The  A-0  system  of  blood  groups  in  pigs  is  analogous  to  the  R-0  system  of  sheep  and 
the  ABO  system  in  man;  and  genetic  studies  have  shown  that  at  least  two  gene  loci 
are  involved  in  the  expression  of  A  and  0.   Results  of  classification  by  B.  A.  Ras- 
musen  in  the  Department  of  Animal  Science  of  red  blood  cells  of  pigs  for  A  and  0 
and  also  for  the  H  factor,  indicate  that  alleles  at  the  locus  for  the  H  blood-group 
system  are  involved  in  determination  of  phenotypes  for  A  and  0. 

A  total  of  1,533  blood  samples  from  adult  Duroc,  Yorkshire,  and  Duroc-Yorkshire 
crossbred  pigs  were  tested  for  A  and  0  in  the  A-0  system,  and  for  H  in  the  H  sys- 
tem.  Results  of  these  tests  show  that  the  H-system  genotype  influences  expression 
of  A  and  0,  but  effects  differed  depending  upon  the  breed. 

Hemolytic  anti-A  (A  reagent  C4,  a  diluted  normal  serum  from  a  Hereford  cow)  and 
hemolytic  anti-0  (0  reagent  Gl,  a  diluted  normal  serum  from  a  female  goat)  were  used 
with  rabbit  complement  to  determine  A  and  0  types  for  611  Duroc  pigs,  598  Yorkshire 
pigs,  and  324  pigs  which  originated  from  a  Duroc  x  Yorkshire  crossbred  foundation  of 
the  same  animals  from  which  the  Durocs  and  Yorkshires  were  descended.   These  pigs 
were  from  six  successive  generations  and  were  typed  during  the  years  1964  to  1972. 
They  were  also  typed  for  the  H  factor,  in  a  destran  agglutination  test  in  which  1/60 
ml  of  a  2-percent  suspension  or  red  blood  cells  was  mixed  with  1/30  ml  of  anti-H 
(H  reagent  P57,  a  diluted  isoimmune  antiserum  from  a  female  pig)  and  1/40  ml  of 
Dextran  6  percent  (w/v)  in  saline,  and  allowed  to  incubate  at  24°  C.  in  covered  micro- 
titer  plates.   Tests  were  read  after  three  hours  and  checked  after  five  hours  of  in- 
cubation.  Blood  types  for  all  of  the  1,533  pigs  were  determined  when  the  pigs  were 
weanlings  4  to  6  weeks  old  and  again  when  they  were  about  one  year  old. 

The  difference  found  between  Yorkshires  and  Durocs  in  the  relationship  between 
H  and  A-0  types  may  be  due  to  different  frequencies  of  alleles  in  the  H  system  in 
the  two  breeds.   Six  different  H-system  alleles  are  known,  and  it  seems  likely  that 
different  alleles  differ  in  their  effects  on  expression  of  A  and  0.   When  only  blood 
factor  H  in  the  H  system  is  identified,  only  two  genetic  types  can  be  distinguished, 
and  each  of  these  may  include  a  combination  of  genotypes  in  Durocs  and  in  Yorkshires. 
Tests  of  red  blood  cells  with  more  reagents  for  A  and  0  and  for  more  H-system  factors 
should  make  it  possible  to  elucidate  the  interaction  of  alleles  at  the  H  and  A-0  lo- 
ci. 

At  any  rate,  it  seems  clear  that  A-0  types  should  be  considered  when  analyzing 
segregation  ratios  and  changes  in  gene  frequencies,  as  well  as  in  analysis  of  the 
significance  of  blood  types  for  productive  and  reproductive  traits. 


77 


GENETIC  IMMUNITY  TO  APPLE  SCAB 


Apple  scab  has  long  been  a  serious  problem  for  growers  in  Illinois  and  elsewhere,  al- 
though varying  degrees  of  control  are  possible  by  carefully  timed  applications  of  fun- 
gicidal chemicals.   A  new  approach  to  control  resulted  when  Illinois  workers  in  hor- 
ticulture discovered  genetic  immunity  to  the  causal  organism,  Venturia  inaequalis,   in 
small- fruited  ornamental  crabapples.  This  provided  the  basis  for  cooperative  research 
with  the  Department  of  Botany  and  Plant  Pathology  at  the  Purdue  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  and  the  Department  of  Horticulture  at  the  New  Jersey  Agricultural  Exper- 
iment Station. 

The  genes  located  proved  to  be  completely  effective,  regardless  of  the  genetic 
backgrounds  into  which  they  were  introduced,  and  this  has  made  it  possible  to  develop 
types  suitable  for  commercial  apple  production.   Research  has  been  accelerated  by  the 
fact  that  susceptible  individuals  among  greenhouse  seedlings  can  be  identified  and 
eliminated  when  they  are  less  than  one  month  old. 

The  research  results  have  stimulated  worldwide  interest,  and  scientists  from 
Canada,  England,  France,  Sweden,  West  Germany,  Holland,  Poland,  Japan,  and  Australia 
have  come  to  Urbana  to  learn  methods  and  techniques  and  to  arrange  for  exchange  of 
germ  plasm.   The  Union  of  South  Africa  was  supplied  with  sufficient  germ  plasm  in  the 
form  of  seeds  to  start  a  major  program  in  that  country.   All  of  this  activity  led  to 
the  formation  of  an  organization  called  the  Apple  Breeders  Cooperative,  to  facilitate 
the  rapid  exchange  of  new  information  and  germ  plasm,  and  for  controlled  testing  of 
potential  scab-immune  cultivars.   Experiment  stations  in  the  United  States,  Canada, 
England,  France,  and  Sweden  are  represented. 

At  least  five  different  races  of  Venturia  inaequalis   are  known;  and  since  the 
resistant  genes  are  non-allelic,  the  development  of  lines  carrying  two  or  more  non- 
allelic genes  for  immunity  should  provide  considerable  assurance  against  inroads  of 
the  scab  problem  in  commercial  orchards.   Even  so,  it  must  be  remembered  that  new 
races  with  greater  virulence  may  arise  in  the  future. 

The  first  commercial  apple  variety  immune  to  scab  was  introduced  in  1969  in  co- 
operation with  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  of  Indiana  and  New  Jersey,  and 
the  Illinois  Horticultural  Experiment  Station.  This  variety,  named  Prima,  is  a  high- 
quality  dessert  apple  with  good  shelf  life,  and  matures  four  weeds  earlier  than  Deli- 
cious. The  immunity  to  apple  scab  which  it  carries  was  inherited  through  several  gen- 
erations of  breeding  from  Malus  flovibunda,  an  ornamental  crab  with  3/8-inch  inedible 
fruit.   Prima  is  also  resistant  to  fire  blight,  apple  blotch,  and  apple  mildew. 

A  second  scab-immune  variety  was  introduced  in  1972  under  the  name  of  Priscilla. 
Its  scab  immunity  is  derived  from  the  same  source  as  that  of  Prima,  and  it  is  also 
resistant  to  fireblight,  blotch,  and  mildew.   Priscilla  is  a  high-quality  red  dessert 
apple,  ripening  about  2-1/2  weeks  earlier  than  Delicious.   These  two  varieties,  plant- 
ed together  for  cross-pollination,  give  orchardists  the  option  of  growing  large  blocks 
of  scab- immune  trees. 


78 


GENETIC  VULNERABILITY 


Plant  and  animal  breeding  sometimes  results  in  such  uniformity  as  to  make  strains 
of  either  plants  or  animals  peculiarly  susceptible  to  new  disease  or  parasitic  or- 
ganisms. 

Many  plant  breeding  improvements  are  normally  accompanied  by  a  drop  in  genetic 
diversity,  and  this  brings  an  increased  risk  of  economic  loss  from  some  new  para- 
site, insect  pest,  or  unusual  environmental  stress.   If  the  hybrid  affected  is  grown 
on  a  limited  acreage,  losses  will  be  comparatively  limited,  but  if  it  is  grown  ex- 
tensively, as  in  the  case  of  wheat  and  maize,  the  losses  incurred  are  corresponding- 
ly increased.   One  obvious  course  of  action  is  to  restore  some  of  the  genetic  diver- 
sity by  developing  new  and  unrelated  types  that  are  resistant  to  or  tolerant  of  the 
new  hazard,  whatever  it  may  be. 

If  uniformity  is  the  crux  of  genetic  vulnerability,  diversity  is  the  best  in- 
surance against  it.   Since  the  market  demands  uniformity  in  commercial  crops,  the 
challenge  to  the  plant  breeder  is  to  provide  diversity.   He  must  build  redundancy 
into  a  back-up  system.   So  far,  this  challenge  has  been  met  by  searching  for  new 
genes  and  by  developing  gene  pools  to  preserve  the  valuable  genes  already  known. 
Scattered  over  the  globe  are  innumerable  varieties  of  many  plants  adapted  to  local 
conditions.   These  can  be  collected  to  serve  as  a  source  of  miscellaneous  genes  for 
disease  resistance  or  other  attributes. 

Spontaneous  mutations  can  also  be  very  useful.   Most  crop  plant  mutants  are  off- 
type  and  are  rarely  saved  by  farmers.   Occasionally  someone  does,  as  in  1922  when 
a  farmer  near  Enfield,  Connecticut,  observed  an  ear  of  corn  in  his  field  that  had  a 
peculiar  appearance- -it  was  opaque,  not  translucent.   Knowing  that  Singleton  and 
Jones  at  New  Haven  were  saving  peculiar  corn  types,  he  sent  it  to  them.   They  named 
it  Opaque-2  and  held  it  in  their  gene  pool  for  40  years.   Mertz  and  Nelson  at  Purdue 
University  found  it  be  the  source  of  a  gene  for  high  lysine,  and  therefore  of  sig- 
nificant potential  for  improving  the  nutritive  value  of  corn.   An  occasional  useful 
mutation  can  be  empirically  induced  by  treating  plant  parts  with  ultraviolet  radia- 
tion, X-rays,  gamma  rays,  or  chemical  mutagens. 

CORN   LEAF   BLIGHT 

The  epidemic  of  corn  leaf  blight  in  1970  provides  a  good  example  of  genetic  vul- 
nerability.  The  corn  crop  fell  victim  to  the  epidemic  because  of  a  quirk  in  the 
technology  that  had  redesigned  the  corn  plants  of  America  until,  in  one  sense,  they 
had  become  as  alike  as  identical  twins.   Whatever  made  one  plant  susceptible  made 
them  all  susceptible. 

The  key  word  is  uniformity — the  plants  were  uniform  in  that  special  sense,  and 
uniformity  in  a  crop  is  an  essential  prerequisite  to  genetic  vulnerability.   It  was 
not  hybrid  vigor  as  such  that  was  responsible  for  the  corn  epidemic,  but  rather  a 
phase  of  the  technology  in  making  use  of  hybrid  vigor. 

When  the  epidemic  struck  in  Florida  in  the  early  spring  of  1970  and  spread  north- 
ward in  the  wake  of  the  greening  wave  of  that  year,  two  facts  stood  out:   (1)   Not 


79 


all  corn  was  infected,  only  those  plants  that  were  descended  from  parents  carrying 
what  is  known  as  Texas  cytoplasm;  and  (2)  the  fungus  responsible  was  Helminthosporium 
maydis. 

Cytoplasm  is  the  complex  substance  that  fills  every  living  cell,  from  bacteria 
to  man.   In  it  are  to  be  found  all  the  minute  components  of  the  cell—nucleus,  chrom- 
osomes, mitochondria,  oil  globules,  and  so  on.   Its  composition  varies  somewhat 
among  species  and  varieties  of  living  organisms,  but  to  the  extent  that  it  deter- 
mines susceptibility  to  blight,  it  is  the  same  in  every  plant  of  the  Texas  strain 
of  corn  wherever  it  is  grown,  and  in  1970  it  was  grown  by  nearly  every  corn  farmer 
in  America. 

Helminthosporium  maydis   had  been  present  in  American  corn  fields  ever  since, 
and  probably  before,  the  days  when  Squanto  showed  the  Pilgrims  how  to  plant  the  crop. 
The  very  name  Helminthosporium   means  that  the  reproductive  bodies,  called  spores, 
resemble  microscopic,  segmented  round  worms  (helminths)  and  maydis  means  that  it 
occurs  on  maize.   Before  1970  Helminthosporium   sometimes  blighted  a  few  leaves  and 
rotted  a  few  ears,  but   it  was  not  considered  very  important.    It  doubtless  mu- 
tated from  time  to  time,  as  all  organisms  do,  and  it  probably  produced  more  viru- 
lent strains  now  and  then.   Those  strains,  if  they  arose,  tended  to  die  out  because 
American  corn  was  too  variable  to  give  the  new  strain  a  very  good  foothold. 

The  introduction  of  Texas  cytoplasm  changed  all  this  by  making  corn  nearly  uni- 
form throughout  the  country  so  far  as  its  cytoplasm  was  concerned.   While  the  tech- 
nology of  using  T  cytoplasm  was  being  developed  and  spread  across  the  nation,  H. 
maydis   continued  to  mutate.   In  due  time,  one  of  its  mutant  forms  proved  ideal  for 
T  cytoplasm  and  spread  like  wildfire  across  the  cornfields. 

COFFEE  RUST 

The  economic  and  cultural  consequences  of  a  plant  disease  are  well  illustrated 
by  the  coffee  rust.   In  1870  Ceylon  was  the  leading  coffee  nation  of  the  world,  ex- 
porting 100,000,000  pounds  annually,  but  by  1885  it  was  unable  to  export  a  single 
bag.   The  Oriental  Bank  failed,  and  the  British  became  a  nation  of  tea  drinkers. 
Meanwhile,  entrepreneurs  had  introduced  coffee  plants  to  South  America,  using  vege- 
tative cuttings  from  susceptible  but  disease-free  plants.   Since  there  was  no  rust, 
the  industry  flourished,  and  the  peoples  of  North  and  South  America  became  coffee 
drinkers,  with  the  economy  of  several  nations  depending  on  that  fact.   Except  for 
one  scare  in  Puerto  Rico,  the  western  hemisphere  remained  free  of  coffee  rust  un- 
til 1969,  when  the  disease  struck  in  epidemic  form  in  Brazil.   The  impact  is  still 
being  felt. 

WHEAT  RUST 

In  1916  the  red  rust  of  wheat  reduced  the  United  States  crop  by  2,000,000  bush- 
els and  by  another  million  in  Canada,  and  the  nation  had  two  wheatless  days  a  week 
during  most  of  1917.   Rust  epidemics  spread  across  the  wheat  belt  again  in  1935  and 
in  1953.   These  epidemics  were  clearly  genetically  based  in  that  as  rust-resistant 
varieties  of  wheat  became  available,  farmers  spread  them  over  very  wide  areas.   When 
the  fungus  mutated  to  a  form  that  attacked  the  new  varieties,  another  epidemic  fol- 
lowed . 

EXOTIC   PLANT   PARASITES 

When  a  parasite  moves  to  another  distant  area,  it  often  finds  highly  susceptible 
hosts  with  little  or  no  resistance.   Some  classic  examples  of  epidemics  resulting 
from  the  introduction  of  exotic  plant  parasites  are: 


80 


Chestnut  blight,  introduced  into  the  United  States  from  the  Orient  on  nursery 
stock  about  1904.   The  chestnut  tree  virtually  disappeared  from  the  eastern  hard- 
wood forests  in  a  short  time. 

White  pine  blister  rust,  introduced  from  Europe,  also  on  nursery  stock. 

Dutch  elm  disease,  brought  from  Europe  on  veneer  logs. 

Blue  mold  of  tobacco,  introduced  into  the  United  States  from  Australia,  and 
then  from  the  United  States  to  Europe. 

Coffee  rust,  already  mentioned,  introduced  into  Ceylon  and  then  into  Brazil, 
where  it  threatens  the  entire  coffee  industry  of  South  America. 

SOYBEANS 

The  soybean  furnishes  another  good  example  of  low  genetic  diversity.   Of  62 
currently  grown  varieties  (43  northern  and  19  southern)  only  17  were  grown  in  1970 
on  as  much  as  1  percent  of  the  soybean  acreage.   In  the  north-central  area  (eight 
states)  three  of  the  commonly  grown  varieties  have  Richland  as  an  ancestor,  and 
all  have  Mandarin  as  an  ancestor.   Such  data  indicate  that  for  the  soybean  varie- 
ties currently  grown  genetic  uniformity  is  pronounced.   The  same  germ  plasm  has 
been  used  repeatedly  to  develop  varieties  that  produce  well  under  normal  conditions. 
Consequently,  the  factors  likely  to  increase  the  vulnerability  of  a  crop  are  pres- 
ent in  soybeans.   The  germ  plasm  has  so  far  been  sufficiently  diverse  to  give 
stability  to  production,  but  the  capacity  to  withstand  attacks  of  new  parasites  that 
may  show  up  is  uncertain. 

A   NATIONAL   COMMITTEE 

The  Committee  on  Genetic  Vulnerability  of  Major  Crops,  operating  under  the  Agri- 
cultural Board  of  the  National  Research  Council,  concluded  its  304-page  1972  report 
with  a  series  of  "Challenges  to  the  Nation."   Included  were  such  things  as  overseas 
laboratories  to  study  exotic  pests  that  are  potential  threats  to  our  major  crops; 
offshore  laboratories  to  study  susceptibility  of  American  crops  to  exotic  pests; 
establishment  of  a  national  monitoring  committee  to  keep  a  watchful  eye  on  the  de- 
velopment and  production  of  major  crops  and  to  remain  alert  to  potential  hazards 
associated  with  new  or  widespread  agricultural  practices;  maintenance  of  germ  plasm 
or  gene  pools;  continuing  the  collecting  expeditions  sponsored  by  the  USDA  Plant  In- 
troduction Service;  continuing  the  collection  of  parasites  such  as  fungi,  bacteria, 
viruses,  nematodes,  and  insects;  and  crop  insurance  against  the  hazards  of  an  epi- 
demic. 

LIVESTOCK  PROBLEMS 

The  livestock  industry  is  faced  with  similar  problems.   In  particular,  swine 
growers  need  answers  to  many  questions  related  to  the  quality  of  pork.   Pale,  soft, 
exudative  pork,  commonly  referred  to  as  PSE  pork,  has  taken  on  increased  signifi- 
cance in  recent  years,  in  that  it  occurs  simultaneously  with,  and  may  be  directly 
related  to,  the  porcine  stress  syndrome  (PSS) . 

PSE  pork  was  recognized  more  than  30  years  ago,  but  it  was  considered  a  minor 
problem.   Students  were  taught  that  such  pork  was  undesirable,  but  no  one  seemed  to 
know  exactly  why.   In  spite  of  much  intensive  research  on  the  problem,  begun  in 
Europe  about  1950  and  in  the  United  States  a  few  years  later,  there  are  still  many 
unanswered  questions  about  its  cause,  its  prevention,  and  the  identification  of 
affected  animals  prior  to  slaughter.   Circumstantial  evidence  points  to  increased 
emphasis  on  selection  for  well-muscled  breeding  stock  and  wider  use  of  confinement 
systems  of  swine  management  as  contributing  causes. 


81 


In  recent  years  the  porcine  stress  syndrome  (PSS)  has  caused  serious  and  very 
costly  death  losses  among  market  hogs.   The  syndrome  is  especially  prevalent  in 
very  muscular  animals,  and  death  losses  seem  to  have  been  greatest  in  herds  in  which 
special  emphasis  has  been  placed  on  selection  for  increased  muscling  in  the  carcass. 
It  may  well  be  that  continued  selection  aimed  at  increased  muscling  and  improved 
quality  of  pork  has  inadvertently  included  selection  for  increased  susceptibility 
to  stress.   The  seriousness  of  the  condition  is  obvious  when  as  many  as  one-third 
of  a  truckload  of  market  hogs  die  while  en  route  to  market.   After  death,  about  two- 
thirds  of  such  animals  quickly  develop  the  pale,  watery  muscle  condition,  suggesting 
that  the  two  problems,  PSE  and  PSS,  may  be  causally  related. 

Continued  efforts  to  find  a  simple,  inexpensive,  and  reliable  method  for  de- 
tecting stress-susceptibility  in  the  live  animal  before  it  is  subjected  to  lethal 
stress  conditions  are  essential.   Even  more  important  is  finding  an  answer  to  the 
basic  genetic  question:   How  can  desirable  pork  quality  characteristics  be  maintained, 
and  if  possible,  be  increased,  without  at  the  same  time  increasing  susceptibility 
to  stress  arising  out  of  such  environmental  conditions  as  those  involved  in  confine- 
ment systems  of  swine  management?   Inherent,  too,  is  the  same  problem  involved  in 
crop  production:   How  to  avoid  loss  of  much  desirable  germ  plasm,  as  increased  em- 
phasis is  based  on  selection  for  desirable  characteristics. 


82 


GENIC  STERILITY  IN  HYBRID  CORN  PRODUCTION 


For  about  thirty  years  after  hybrid  corn  production  became  important  in  Illinois, 
the  general  procedure  followed  by  corn  breeders  was  to  plant  two  inbred  lines  in 
alternate  rows,  one  line  to  be  the  male  parent  and  the  other  the  female.  Later  in 
the  season,  after  the  corn  was  well  grown,  but  before  any  pollen  had  been  shed,  it 
was  necessary  to  go  over  the  entire  field  and  detassel  the  alternate  rows  represent- 
ing the  female  line  in  order  to  insure  cross-pollination.  This  was  a  costly  opera- 
tion, and  even  after  mechanical  equipment  had  been  developed  to  eliminate  much  of 
the  hand  labor,  it  was  extremely  critical  as  to  time. 

Cytoplasmic  male  sterility,  which  prevents  the  tassels  from  producing  functional 
pollen,  had  been  recognized  in  the  early  1930 's,  but  not  until  about  1960  was  it  com- 
bined with  other  desirable  characteristics  in  inbred  lines  that  could  be  used  in  pro- 
ducing hybrid  seed  corn  while  avoiding  the  labor  of  detasseling.  One  strain  known  as 
Texas-sterile  or  simply  T-sterile  cytoplasm  came  to  be  almost  universally  used  in  the 
production  of  commercial  hybrid  corn.  Unfortunately,  it  carries  a  high  degree  of  sus- 
ceptibility to  southern  leaf  blight  caused  by  a  newly  recognized  race  of  Helmintho- 
sporium  maydis.    When  this  disease  moved  north  into  the  Corn  Belt  in  1970,  it  caused 
heavy  losses  both  in  farmers'  fields  and  in  commercial  foundation  and  production  fields. 

Fortunately,  Illinois  researchers  A.L.  Hooker  and  associates  discovered  and  pub- 
licized the  specific  association  between  T-sterile  cytoplasm  and  extreme  susceptibil- 
ity to  the  new  race  of  the  pathogen,  so  that  it  was  possible  to  minimize  the  problem 
promptly  by  shifting  production  to  a  base  of  nonsterile  cytoplasm.  Other  types  of 
sterile  cytoplasm  are  also  known  which  do  not  display  this  striking  differential  sus- 
ceptibility to  the  pathogen.  Most  commercial  companies  are  continuing  to  explore  the 
use  of  such  sterile  cytoplasms  in  production  procedures,  though  there  is  a  conscious 
effort  to  avoid  the  possible  hazards  of  widespread  dependence  on  any  one  cytoplasm 
source. 

Corn  geneticist  E.B.  Patterson,  however,  took  another  approach.  Essentially,  it 
involved  the  use  of  genie  male  sterility  instead  of  cytoplasmic  sterility.  Some  twen- 
ty male-sterile  genes  are  known  in  corn,  and  about  half  of  them  appear  to  be  suitable 
for  use  in  commercial  production.  All  of  the  known  types  are  recessive  in  their  ex- 
pression and,  since  they  can  be  employed  in  conjunction  with  various  non-sterile 
cytoplasms,  they  can  be  used  in  the  production  of  hybrid  seed  without  resorting  to 
detasseling  while  at  the  same  time  avoiding  the  problem  of  differential  susceptibil- 
ity to  southern  leaf  blight. 

Technically,  the  male-sterile  plants  have  the  genetic  constitution  ms/ms.      If 
they  are  pollinated  by  male-fertile  plants  which  carry  the  recessive  allele,  we  have 
ms/ms   x  ms/+,   and  the  progenies  will  consist  of  equal  numbers  of  male-sterile  {ms/ms) 
and  male-fertile  {ms/+)    individuals,  provided  the  ms   and  +  alleles  from  the  pollen 
parent  are  transmitted  via  the  pollen  in  equal  proportions  to  the  progeny.  If  no 
pollen  grains  carrying  the  normal  (+)  allele  function  in  fertilization,  all  of  the 
progeny  will  be  male  sterile.  This  is  precisely  what  is  required  to  produce  all- 
sterile  rows  of  female  parents  in  commercial  foundation  and  production  fields.   But 
in  order  to  maintain  stocks  of  ms/+   plants  in  which  the  normal  allele  of  the  gene  is 
not  pollen-transmitted,  it  is  necessary  that  this  normal  allele  be  egg-transmitted. 


83 


Under  Dr.  Patterson's  plan  this  is  accomplished  by  making  use  of  aberrant  chro- 
mosome types  having  breakpoints  favorably  located  with  respect  to  agronomical ly  suit- 
able male-sterile  gene  loci.  The  exact  linkage  relationship  is  important--no  more 
than  perhaps  0.5  percent  recombination  between  a  male-sterile  gene  and  an  adjacent 
point  of  deficiency—and  out  of  168  reciprocal  translocations  screened  so  far  to 
identify  suitable  egg-transmissible  duplicate-deficient  chromosome  complements,  only 
nine  specific  combinations  meet  this  criterion.  Source  stocks  appropriate  for  deriv- 
ing four  such  combinations  were  released  to  commercial  corn  breeders  in  May,  1972. 

Corn  geneticists  will  be  interested  in  the  linkage  information  relative  to  these 
combinations,  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Recombination  Between  Male-Sterile  Gene  Loci  and 
Chromosome  Deficiencies  in  Duplicate-Deficient  Plants 


Specific  combination 

a/ 
progeny 

of  male-sterile  gene 

Interchange 
points  of 

Testcross 

locus  and  duplicate- 

%  ma 1 e - 

deficient  chromosome 

reciprocal 

Male 

Male 

sterile 
plants  b' 

complement 

translocation 

sterile 

fertile 

Total 

ms   -  Dp-Df  4-6b 
ms?  -  Dp-Df  9-10a 
ms^  -  Dp-Df  4-10f 
msj^-  Dp-Df  6-10  5519 

6L.16;  4s. 80   c/ 

2148 

5 

2153 

99.8 

9L.14;  10L.92  c/ 

3758 

20 

3778 

99.5 

10L.14;  4L.94  c/ 

7251 

13 

7264 

99.8 

10L.17;  6s. 75   c/ 

1111 

0 

1111 

100 

a/From  ms/ms   x  Dp-Df  +/ms/ms   crosses, 

b/Based  on  these  data,  figures  in  this  column  represent  the  percentage  of  male- 
sterile  plants  expected  in  each  case  in  female  rows  in  commercial  production  fields 

c/Duplicate-deficient  plants  are  deficient  for  the  chromosome  segment  distal  to  this 
second-listed  interchange  point. 

In  addition  to  data  for  the  specific  problem  here  described,  a  considerable 
amount  of  new  linkage  information  has  been  obtained,  and  numerous  stocks  have  been 
derived  and  perpetuated  that  should  have  value  in  other  areas  of  genetic  research. 


84 


THE  H  BLOOD-GROUP  SYSTEM  AND  REPRODUCTION  IN  PIGS 


Do  the  effects  of  H-system  alleles  have  potential  for  improvement  of  reproductive 
performance  in  pigs?   Iowa  State  workers  had  suggested  that  "the  possibility  of 
quick  gains  through  the  H  system  may  be  worth  the  risk  of  failure."  Studies  by  R.A 
Rasmusen  and  Karen  L.  Uagen  of  the  Department  of  Animal  Science  of  blood  types  in 
pigs  from  a  breeding  experiment  have  provided  additional  evidence  of  H-system  ef- 
fects. 

Yorkshire,  Duroc,  and  Yorkshire-Duroc  crossbred  pigs  were  produced  from  matings 
of  a  group  of  boars  and  sows,  repeated  to  form  three  separate  breeding  groups.   For 
each  of  six  generations  there  was  an  unselected  Yorkshire  line,  a  selected  Yorkshire 
line,  an  unselected  Duroc  line,  a  selected  Duroc  line,  and  a  selected  crossbred  line. 
In  the  selected  lines,  selection  was  on  the  malgnside  only,  based  on  high  whole  body 
potassium  per  unit  of  weight,  as  estimated  by  K   count,  adjusted  for  body  weight, 
age,  sex,  litter,  and  breed  class.   After  the  first  generation,  only  four  sire  lines 
were  continued,  and  each  male  was  mated  to  four  females  insofar  as  possible,  pro- 
viding a  progeny  test  of  four  litters  for  each  male. 

Pigs  were  bled  at  4  to  6  weeks  of  age.   Blood  samples  were  typed  with  H  rea- 
gent P57,  and  the  H  type  was  confirmed  by  using  a  second  H  reagent  in  a  similar 
test.   All  animals  used  for  breeding  were  tested  once  at  weaning  and  again  as  adults. 
Boars  were  tested  before  their  offspring  were  born,  and  sows  in  the  same  test  as  their 
weanling  offspring. 

Parental  types  for  matings  were  designated  as  a/-  (genotype  ti  H   )  and  -/-  (geno- 
type H~H~).      Chi-square  tests  revealed  only  one  significant  deviation  from  expected 
numbers  of  ratios  of  a/-  to  -/-  offspring,  in  Yorkshires  from  matings  of  a/-  males 
x  -/-  females,  in  which  there  was  an  excess  of  H  -positive  offspring.   This  was  also 
the  only  segregating  mating  in  which  litter  size  was  below  average,  and  significant- 
ly lower  than  the  reciprocal  cross. 

It  was  concluded  that  genotypes  and  phenotypes  in  the  H  blood-group  system  ap- 
pear to  be  related  to  the  reproductive  performance  in  pigs  as  a  result  of  both  in- 
compatibility for  the  H  factor  and  differences  in  fitness  among  genotypes  for  H- 
system  alleles.   Selection  on  the  basis  of  H  type  might  be  effective  in  increasing 
litter  size  in  closed  purebred  herds.   Selecting  only  -/-  Yorkshire  boars,  regardless 
of  the  H  type  of  the  sows,  seemed  to  provide  about  one-half  pig  per  litter  above 
average  for  the  herd.   This  procedure  would  make  it  unnecessary  to  type  females,  and 
would  maintain  some  H     alleles  in  the  herd,  which  might  be  desirable. 

In  Durocs,  polymorphism  seemed  to  increase  litter  size,  and  the  matings  of  -/- 
x  -/-  gave  litters  of  below  average  size.   Hence  it  might  be  desirable  to  select  -/- 
boars  and  a/-  sows  for  breeding  in  each  generation.   This  repeated  backcrossing  for 
H  would  avoid  the  production  of  undesirable  a/a  types,  and  make  it  unnecessary  to 
maintain  a  separate  a/a  line  for  crossing.  Use  of  -/-  boars  would  prevent  any  mother- 
offspring  incompatibility  for  H  ,  and  use  of  a/-  sows  would  take  advantage  of  any 
heterozygote  superiority  of  the  female.   It  should  be  recognized  that  other  breeds 
or  other  herds  might  react  differently. 


85 


HARDWOOD  BARK  FOR  PACKAGING 
BARE-ROOT  NURSERY  STOCK 


Since  about  1968,  nurserymen  have  been  using  various  materials  such  as  vermiculite, 
perlite,  peat,  styrofoam,  and  straw  for  balling  and  packaging  bare-root  nursery  stock 
prior  to  sale.   No  one  of  these  materials  is  completely  satisfactory.   J.B.  Gartner 
and  associates  in  the  Department  of  Horticulture  undertook  to  determine  the  feasi- 
bility of  using  hardwood  bark  for  balling  and  packaging  purposes. 

Comparisons  were  made  between  ammoniated  bark,  finely  ground  bark,  coarse  ground 
bark,  and  composted  bark,  using  four  different  wrapping  procedures  in  each  case.  One- 
fourth  of  the  plants  were  wrapped  in  burlap  bags;  one-fourth  in  burlap  plus  a  plastic 
bag;  one-fourth  in  burlap  plus  a  plastic  bag  which  had  been  perforated  with  64  1/4- 
inches  holes;  and  one-fourth  in  burlap  plus  a  plastic  bag  perforated  with  64  1/2-inch 
holes. 

Their  results  were  so  successful  that  many  nurseries  are  now  using  hardwood  bark 
in  packaging  ornamental  plants,  especially  the  bare-root  type  of  nursery  stock.   The 
conventional  method  of  using  plastic  bags  alone  cannot  be  used  with  bark  because  of 
the  high  build-up  of  C0~.   This  problem  can  be  eliminated  by  perforating  the  plastic 
with  a  sufficient  number  of  1/2-inch  holes  to  permit  the  CO  to  escape. 

More  research  is  needed  to  determine  how  much  and  what  plant  nutrient  material 
can  profitably  be  added  to  bark  prior  to  its  use  for  balling  and  packaging. 


86 


HARDWOOD  BARK  MULCH  FOR  ROADSIDE  SLOPES 


The  wood-using  industries  generate  thousands  of  tons  of  wood  and  bark  residues  for 
which  there  has  been  no  established  use  and  which  can  no  longer  be  disposed  of  by 
burning.   Early  in  1968,  T.R.  Yocom  and  associates  in  the  Department  of  Forestry 
undertook  a  project  directed  toward  the  development  of  large,  bulk- type  uses  for 
these  materials.   An  important  phase  of  the  project  was  to  study  the  performance  and 
economic  feasibility  of  using  shredded  hardwood  bark  as  a  roadside  mulching  material 
to  replace  the  dwindling  supply  of  both  straw  and  corncobs  which  have  been  widely 
used  for  this  purpose.   Approximately  7,000  acres  of  roadside  must  be  treated  each 
year,  requiring  more  than  30,000  tons  of  mulch,  a  sizable  market  for  the  right  kind 
of  mulching  material. 

A  suitable  mulching  material  must  first  form  a  protective  layer  or  mat  over  the 
exposed  soils,  one  that  is  capable  of  absorbing  the  energy  of  falling  raindrops  so 
as  to  diffuse  and  retard  water  runoff.   Second,  it  must  enhance  conditions  for  good 
seed  germination  and  the  development  of  a  permanent  well-distributed  herbaceous  cover, 
essential  to  long-term  erosion  control.   It  must  also  be  a  quality-controlled  pro- 
duct of  uniform  structure,  one  that  can  be  readily  handled,  transported,  and  applied 
by  efficient  and  relatively  low-cost  types  of  equipment.   It  should  be  conveniently 
available  on  a  year-round  basis,  and  competitive  in  cost  with  other  mulching  ma- 
terials. 

Since  texture  and  particle-size  distribution  may  affect  the  performance  of  a 
mulch,  the  researchers  designed  and  constructed  a  motorized  sieve-type  classifier, 
with  wire  sieves  arranged  in  stack  form,  which  was  used  successfully  in  measuring 
the  physical  properties  of  the  two  bark  mulches  studied. 

Through  the  cooperation  of  the  Illinois  Division  of  Highways,  test  sites  were 
selected  on  Interstate  Route  70  east  of  Marshall  and  on  Interstate  Route  74  west  of 
Champaign  where  suitable  cutbank  slopes  had  been  prepared  for  seeding.   The  trials 
demonstrated  conclusively  that  shredded  bark  materials  can  be  mechanically  applied 
to  roadside  surfaces  with  blower-type  equipment,  and  that  they  are  nearly  or  equally 
as  effective  as  conventional  mulches  when  applied  at  the  rate  of  30  cubic  yards  per 
acre.   Permanent  vegetative  cover  produced  on  the  bark-mulched  area  was  definitely 
superior  to  that  on  comparable  areas  treated  with  conventional  mulching  materials. 

The  shredded-bark  mulches,  when  properly  applied,  are  aesthetically  attractive, 
and  avoid  the  problems  of  higher  cost  and  spattered  fences  resulting  from  the  emul- 
sified asphalt  that  must  be  used  with  other  mulching  materials.   Progress  has  been 
made  toward  designing  the  equipment  needed  for  hauling  and  applying  the  bulk-type 
bark  mulching  materials.   Several  equipment  manufacturing  firms  have  developed  new 
machines  for  this  purpose. 

The  rain  tower  on  the  University  South  Farm  was  used  in  further  studies  of  the 
performance  capabilities  of  bark  mulches.   A  model  was  constructed  to  simulate  the 
two  slopes  normally  encountered  along  Illinois  highways:  2:1  and  3:1.   It  was  de- 
signed so  that  surface  runoff  and  percolation  water  could  be  collected  separately. 
Several  mulches  were  tested  on  a  clay  loam  topsoil  provided  by  the  Illinois  Depart- 
ment of  Transportation.   Two  excessively  high  rates  of  rainfall--6  and  9  inches  per 


87 


hour--were  chosen  to  test  the  capacity  of  mulches  to  withstand  extreme  erosional 
forces.   A  large  trough  collected  the  water,  soil,  and  mulch  that  moved  off  the  sur- 
face, while  holes  drilled  in  the  bottom  of  the  soil  box  provided  an  outlet  for  water 
that  percolated  through  the  soil  layer. 

A  bark  mulch  applied  at  the  rate  of  30  cubic  yards  per  acre  on  a  3:1  slope  re- 
duced soil  erosion  losses  to  acceptable  levels  when  exposed  to  simulated  6-inch-per- 
hour  and  9-inch-per-hour  rainfall  rates  that  lasted  for  30  minutes.   Soil  losses 
were  reduced  to  exceptionally  low  levels  when  the  bark  was  applied  at  the  rate  of 
40  cubic  yards  per  acre.   By  contrast,  soil  surface  mulched  with  sawdust  applied 
at  the  same  rates  and  on  the  same  slopes  was  severely  eroded  at  both  rainfall  rates. 

These  results,  in  addition  to  the  roadside  tests  made  on  Interstate  Route  70, 
demonstrated  the  value  of  bark  mulches  in  preventing  erosion  on  roadside  slopes. 
The  material  is  available  and  the  potential  market  is  substantial. 


88 


HAY  PELLETS  FOR  BEEF  CALVES 


Cattle  seldom  gain  well  on  all-roughage  rations  fed  as  long  hay  because  the  supply 
of  available  nutrients  is  limited  by  the  amount  of  roughage  an  animal  can  eat.   In 
addition  to  the  obvious  advantages  of  reduced  storage  space,  less  waste,  and  conven- 
ience, tests  at  the  Dixon  Springs  Agricultural  Center  by  A.L.  Neumann,  R.J.  Webb, 
and  G.F.  Cmarik  resulted  in  greatly  increased  gains  at  less  cost  when  425-pound  steers 
were  fed  for  112  to  119  days. 

In  the  first  test,  alfalfa-timothy  hay  (about  one-third  alfalfa)  was  fed  free- 
choice  to  three  lots  of  steer  calves  as  long  (baled),  chopped  (4-  to  6-inch  lengths), 
or  pelleted  (3/16-inch  diameter)  hay,  with  mineral  and  salt  also  available.   The 
calves  fed  pellets  ate  about  one-third  more  hay  during  the  test  than  did  the  calves 
fed  long  hay.   Daily  gains  were  nearly  tripled,  and  cost  of  gain  was  reduced  by  about 
$4  a  hundredweight.   Each  ton  of  pelleted  hay  produced  about  100  pounds  more  gain 
than  did  a  ton  of  long  or  chopped  hay. 

In  a  second  test,  high-  and  low-quality  alfalfa  hays  were  compared.   Steers  fed 
pellets  consumed  about  one-third  more  than  the  steers  eating  long  hay,  and  required  only 
9  pounds  for  each  pound  of  gain,  in  contrast  to  the  63  pounds  of  hay  per  pound  of 
gain  for  the   lot  fed  long  hay.   Consumption  of  low-quality  lespedeza  hay  was  only 
slightly  increased  by  pelleting. 

An  interesting  observation  was  that  calves  on  pellets  seldom  ruminated--that 
is,  chewed  cuds.  It  was  suggested  that  the  energy  required  to  pellet  the  hay  was 
probably  less  than  that  used  by  steers  in  ruminating  long  hay. 


89 


HEMOGLOBIN  TYPES  AND  TRANSFERRIN  (BETA  GLOBULIN)  TYPES  IN  SHEEP 


From  1961  to  1970,  81  rams,  834  ewes,  and  1,218  lambs  comprising  the  Suffolk  and 
Targhee  sheep  in  the  regional  sheep  breeding  project  at  the  Dixon  Springs  Agri- 
cultural Center  were  checked  for  hemoglobin  type  (A,  AB,  or  B)  using  starch-gel 
electrophoresis.   The  frequency  of  the  allele  for  hemoglobin  B  was  0.90  for  the 
Suf folks  and  0.85  for  the  Targhees.   Matings  involving  B  and  AB  parents  produced 
more  B  lambs  than  expected,  a  finding  that  is  in  agreement  with  data  reported  from 
Germany  and  Hungary  and  consistent  with  a  superiority  of  hemoglobin  type  B  in  an 
environment  such  as  that  at  Dixon  Springs. 

Transferrin  (beta  globulin)  types  were  also  determined  and  gene  frequencies 
calculated  by  B.  A.  Rasmusen  and  L.  Fesus  for  the  Suf folks,  Targhees,  and  600  Suf- 
folk x  Targhee  crossbreds.   At  least  nine  different  transferrins  in  sheep  blood 
have  been  found  by  various  workers,  and  six  of  these  were  found  in  the  Dixon  Springs 
sheep--types  A,  B,  C,  M,  D,  and  E.   No  type  D  was  found  in  the  Illinois  Suffolks, 
but  type  D  did  occur  in  the  Targhees.   On  the  other  hand,  transferrin  B  was  found 
in  Targhees,  but  only  as  a  rare  allele.  There  was  no  evidence  in  any  of  the  sire 
families  suggesting  the  effect  of  a  recessive  factor,  lethal  in  homozygous  form 
and  linked  to  the  transferrin  locus,  which  might  account  for  departures  from  the 
expected  1:1  ratio. 


90 


HEREDITARY  RESISTANCE  TO  DISEASE 


Those  who  work  with  animals  have  frequently  noted  that  some  individuals  appear  to  be 
resistant  to  a  specific  infectious  disease.   Such  animals  give  no  evidence  of  having 
contracted  infection  when  they  have  had  ample  opportunity  to  do  so,  or  if  they  are 
infected,  show  much  less  serious  symptoms  than  other  individuals  exposed  under  the 
same  conditions.   In  order  to  throw  some  light  on  the  question  of  whether  such  resist- 
ance is  inherited,  Elmer  Roberts  and  L.E.  Card  of  the  Department  of  Animal  Science 
made  a  ten-year  study  of  resistance  and  susceptibility  to  Salmonella  pullorum,   the 
causative  organism  of  pullorum  disease  in  young  chicks.   More  than  29,000  birds  of 
various  breeds  and  varieties  were  used.   Pullorum  disease  of  fowls  was  chosen  for 
this  study  because: 

1.  It  is  a  well-defined  disease  of  young  chicks,  usually  running  its  course  in 
a  few  days. 

2.  The  organism  is  easily  cultured  in  the  laboratory. 

3.  The  biological  tests  for  detecting  infection  are  considered  reliable,  and 
are  widely  used  for  the  elimination  of  infected  individuals  from  commercial 
breeding  flocks. 

4.  Mortality  can  be  observed  in  young  chicks,  and  large  numbers  can  be  used  at 
relatively  low  cost,  by  contrast  with  what  would  be  required  in  making  a 
study  of  a  disease  affecting  only  adults. 

The  foundation  breeding  stock  for  the  experiment  was  obtained  from  several  hun- 
dred day-old  chicks  which  were  inoculated  with  Salmonella  pullorum.      The  few  that  sur- 
vived were  used  as  breeders.   Others  obtained  in  like  manner  were  added  from  time  to 
time  until  the  flock  was  large  enough  to  permit  use  of  the  progeny  test  as  a  basis 
of  selection.   Only  those  parents  showing  a  high  percentage  of  survival  among  their 
inoculated  offspring  were  selected  for  further  use  as  breeders. 

Chicks  were  inoculated  the  day  after  hatching,  a  pure  culture  of  the  organism 
being  administered  orally  by  pipette.   All  chicks  of  a  given  hatch  were  inoculated 
from  the  same  culture  and  placed  in  a  brooder  for  observation.   If  chicks  of  differ- 
ent kinds  were  to  be  tested,  they  were  placed  together  in  the  same  brooder.   Survival 
to  three  weeks  of  age  was  used  as  the  measure  of  resistance  to  infection. 

Among  4,138  chicks  from  selected  strain  I,  inoculated  during  the  years  1925  to 
1933,  the  percentage  surviving  was  71.0,  in  contrast  to  28.1  percent  for  5,696  con- 
trol chicks.   From  1930  to  1934,  selected  strains  II  and  III  were  compared  with  con- 
trol stock,  giving  survival  percentages  of  64.9,  73.9,  and  30.5,  respectively.   When 
strains  II  and  III  were  crossed,  and  the  resulting  progeny  tested  in  1934,  survival 
was  87.0  percent  against  20.3  percent  for  controls  tested  at  the  same  time. 

A  study  of  Chinese  stocks  was  made  by  Dr.  Roberts  in  the  spring  of  1930.   If  re- 
sistance and  susceptibility  are  hereditary,  one  would  expect,  in  an  old  country  where 
fowls  have  long  been  domesticated  and  where  there  has  been  no  artificial  control  of 
disease,  to  find  the  chicks  more  resistant  than  those  in  a  country  where  domestica- 
tion is  recent,  where  the  disease  has  been  present,  and  where  disease-control  measures 


91 


have  been  in  general  use.   In  the  older  country,  natural  selection  would  have  tended 
to  eliminate  the  susceptible  individuals,  with  only  the  more  resistant  ones  surviving. 
Six  different  kinds  of  chickens  were  chosen  for  the  tests:   Chia  Gi,  a  small-type 
chicken  from  the  vicinity  of  Peiping,  China;  Cochins  from  the  vicinity  of  Peiping; 
Shansi  from  Shansi  Province;  Langshans  from  Nantungchow  in  central  China;  White  Leg- 
horns from  stock  imported  from  the  United  States  about  1923;  and  Rhode  Island  Reds 
imported  from  Canada  specifically  for  the  test. 

Results  from  the  several  hatches  were  as  follows: 

Kind  of  chicken Number  inoculated    Percent  surviving 

Chinese 

Chia  Gi  (small  type)  552  61.1 

Cochin  397  38.3 

Shansi  221  26.7 

Langshan  409  34.7 

Local  hatchery  (mixed)  296  44.3 

Imported 

White  Leghorn  306  68.0 

Rhode  Island  Red  442  58.6 

The  high  resistance  to  pullorum  disease  shown  by  the  Chia  Gi  of  North  China,  and 
the  low  resistance  of  the  Langshan  of  central  China  suggest  the  operation  of  natural 
selection.   In  North  China  the  birds  had  been  exposed  to  pullorum  disease,  so  that 
the  more  susceptible  probably  were  eliminated.   The  Langshan  in  central  China,  so  far 
as  could  be  determined,  had  not  been  in  contact  with  the  disease,  so  that  no  natural 
selection  would  have  been  possible. 

In  another  phase  of  this  research,  an  X-ray  technique  was  used  to  study  the  re- 
lation of  lymphocytes  to  disease  resistance.   The  number  of  lymphocytes  in  the  blood 
of  chicks  normally  increases  with  age,  reaching  a  maximum  at  five  or  six  days  after 
hatching.   Simultaneously,  chicks  become  highly  resistant  to  Salmonella  pullorum   in- 
fection.  When  chicks  were  X-rayed  at  either  one  or  six  days  of  age,  the  number  of 
lymphocytes  was  found  to  be  greatly  decreased,  and  the  chicks  were  found  to  be  much 
more  susceptible  to  S.    pullorum.      Blood  studies  made  of  chicks  from  the  15th  day  of 
incubation  to  eight  days  after  hatching  showed  a  higher  percentage  of  lymphocytes  in 
resistant  than  in  susceptible  chicks  from  about  the  20th  day  of  incubation  to  three 
days  after  hatching.   This  strongly  suggests  that  the  lymphocytes  act  as  a  defense 
mechanism. 

The  overall  results  of  the  ten-year  study  support  the  following  conclusions: 

1.  Selection  was  effective  in  producing  strains  more  resistant  to  infection  by  Sal- 
monella pullorum   than  were  unselected  stocks. 

2.  The  selected  stocks  were  consistent  in  maintaining  resistance  through  successive 
generations. 

3.  The  Fj  generation  produced  by  crossing  resistant  and  susceptible  stock  was  as  re- 
sistant as  the  resistant  parents. 

4.  Progeny  of  the  l:\    individuals  mated  to  resistant  stock  were  significantly  more  re- 
sistant than  were  the  progeny  of  the  back-cross  to  susceptible  stock. 


92 


5.  In  the  F2  generation  both  susceptible  and  resistant  strains  were  recovered  by 
selection. 

6.  Resistance  is  dominant  to  susceptibility,  but  probably  more  than  one  gene  is  in- 
volved. 

7.  Lymphocytes  in  the  blood  apparently  act  as  a  defense  mechanism  against  Salmonella 
pullorum   infection. 


93 


HIGH-PRESSURE  PRESERVATIVE  TREATMENT  OF  WOOD 


In  ordinary  chemical  treatment  of  wood  with  preservatives,  full  penetration  of  the 
solution  rarely  occurs  if  the  pieces  treated  are  as  large  as  crossties.   Accordingly, 
C.S.  Walters  and  J.K.  Guiher  in  the  Department  of  Forestry  undertook  a  test  in  which 
both  crossties  and  small  stakes  were  subjected  to  pressures  as  high  as  800  p.s.i. 
(pounds  per  square  inch)  during  treatment.   The  woods  used  were  red  gum  and  Douglas 
fir. 

Sixteen-inch  stakes  of  red  gum  1-inch  square  in  cross-section  were  treated  with 
5  percent  pentachlorophenol  in  a  petroleum  solvent.   Half  of  the  specimens  had  a  25 
percent  moisture  content,  and  the  others  were  dried  to  an  8  percent  content.   Ends  of 
all  stakes  were  double-coated  with  a  phenolic  resin  adhesive  prior  to  treatment  to  re- 
sist end  penetration  of  the  preservative. 

During  treatment,  the  stakes  were  subjected  to  pressures  of  100,  200,  400,  or  800 
p.s.i.  for  30  minutes  at  either  100°  F.  or  200°  F.,  using  the  Lowry  method  with  no 
final  vacuum.  Average  absorption  of  the  treating  solution,  calculated  as  pounds  per 
cubic  foot  of  wood,  was  as  follows: 

Pressure  (p.s.i.) 100°  F. 200°  F. 

0  (atmospheric) 

100 
200 
400 
800 
Average 

Absorption  of  the  preservative  was  considerably  higher  at  a  moisture  content  of 
8  percent  than  at  25  percent,  and  it  is  suggested  that  red  gum  be  dried  to  about  8 
percent  moisture  before  treatment.   The  normal  fiber  saturation  point  for  red  gum  is 
about  25  percent. 

Absorption  increased  almost  linearly  with  increasing  pressure,  and  could  be  pre- 
dicted from  the  following  formula: 

Y  =  0.01573X  +  0.523 

Y  =  absorption  in  pounds  of  solution  per  cubic  foot 
X  =  treating  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch 

Solving  for  800  p.s.i.  gives  a  predicted  absorption  of  14.5  p.c.f.   The  maximum 
difference  from  the  values  predicted  by  the  above  equation  was  1.2  pounds,  or  approx- 
imately 8  percent. 

Lumen  pressure  is  more  quickly  dissipated  along  the  grain  than  across  the  grain 
of  the  wood.   In  tests  with  small  stakes,  no  end  coatings  (resorcinol  adhesive)  were 
loosened  during  treatment.   Any  such  loosening  would  have  indicated  excessive  pres- 
sure release  parallel  to  the  grain.   To  check  on  the  possibility  of  mechanical  damage 


94 


.32 

-  .07 

(slight  loss 
of  moisture) 

1.84 

2.79 

2.79 

4.67 

5.97 

6.86 

4.41 

14.66 

5.07 

5.78 

to  heavy  timbers,  such  as  crossties,  following  quick  pressure  release,  air-seasoned 
red  gum  crossties  were  similarly  treated  with  pentachlorophenol  dissolved  (5  percent) 
in  a  petroleum  solvent. 

Moisture  content  was  measured  near  midlength  of  each  tie  at  a  depth  of  1-1/2  inches, 
and  wood  temperature  was  monitored  by  a  thermocouple  near  the  geometric  center  of  one 
tie.   The  ties  were  heated  in  the  preservative  solution  until  the  wood  reached  205°  F., 
a  matter  of  nine  hours.   Lowry  pressure  of  800  p.s.i.  was  then  applied  for  1/2  hour, 
and  released  to  atmospheric  pressure  in  less  than  one  minute.   After  12  hours,  the 
ties  were  ripped  lengthwise  for  examination.   Nearly  complete  penetration  was  obtained, 
with  average  retention  of  15.2  p.c.f.   No  deleterious  effects  of  the  high-pressure 
treatment  were  observed. 

In  the  Douglas  fir  tests,  stakes  of  heartwood  1  inch  in  cross-section  and  16  inches 
long  were  treated  in  similar  fashion.   Moisture  content  of  the  wood  was  28  percent 
(saturation)  and  6.7  percent.  Solution  temperatures  were  100°  F.,  and  200°  F.,  and  pres- 
sures used  were  100,  2u0,  400,  and  800  p.s.i.   Pressure  and  temperature  each  had  a 
significant  effect  on  the  amount  of  solution  absorbed,  but  there  were  no  significant 
differences  with  respect  to  the  two  moisture  levels. 

In  another  test  to  observe  dimensional  changes  in  Douglas  fir,  heartwood  stakes 
at  8  percent  and  29  percent  moisture  content  were  used,  with  the  same  two  temperatures 
and  with  pressures  of  100,  300,  450,  and  600  p.s.i.   Maximum  absorption  of  15.4  p.c.f. 
occurred  at  600  p.s.i.  with  wood  at  8  percent  moisture  and  200°  F.   Collapse  was  ob- 
served under  these  conditions.   Little  if  any  collapse,  as  measured  by  a  strain  gauge, 
occurred  at  300  p.s.i.  or  less,  when  the  wood  was  at  200°  F.  or  cooler.   Partial  re- 
covery of  compression  set  was  believed  to  have  resulted  when  high  pressure  kept  the 
moisture  in  wet  (29  percent)  wood  in  a  liquid  state.   At  atmospheric  pressure,  how- 
ever, the  water  in  the  hot  wood  was  converted  to  steam,  which  in  turn  brought  about 
full  recovery. 


95 


HOME  ECONOMICS  EXTENSION 


Home  Economics  Extension,  like  Agricultural  Extension,  was  operating,  and  had  become 
fairly  well  known  in  the  state  several  years  before  passage  of  the  Smith-Lever  Act 
in  1914.   The  new  act,  however,  made  it  possible  to  add  a  staff  member  who  would 
serve  as  a  full-time  extension  worker  throughout  the  state.   Miss  Mamie  Bunch,  a 
1914  graduate  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  was  the  first  person  chosen  for  this 
responsibility;  and  on  August  1,  1915,  Miss  Eva  Benefiel,  a  1909  graduate,  became 
the  first  county  home  adviser,  working  through  the  Kankakee  County  Improvement  As- 
sociation. Within  three  years  there  were  similar  organizations  in  ten  other  counties- 
Adams,  Champaign,  Kane,  LaSalle,  Livingston,  McHenry,  McLean,  Madison,  Mercer,  and 
Williamson. 

Obtaining  well-trained  personnel  for  county  work  was  a  continuing  problem,  and 
many  in-service  courses  were  held  by  the  state  staff  to  help  meet  the  increasing 
need  for  technical  information.   Miss  Mary  A,  McKee  in  her  "History  of  Home  Econo- 
mics Extension  in  Illinois"  wrote: 

One  has  only  to  read  the  early  reports,  sketchy  as  they  are,  handwritten  at, 
no  doubt,  the  end  of  a  long  and  weary  day,  to  sense  the  dedication  and  deter- 
mination of  those  early  workers.   Nothing  daunted  them;  they  never  admitted 
defeat;  they  were  most  ingenious  and  must  have  been  well  trained  and  grounded 
in  the  field  of  home  economics;  but  they  did  not  hestitate  to  lecture  in  other 
areas  when  necessary.  They  were  skilled,  too,  in  working  with  people,  and 
seemed  to  have  a  way  of  ferreting  out  the  real  leaders  in  a  community,  enlist- 
ing their  support  as  well  as  that  of  industrial  and  business  leaders. 

Another  quotation  from  Miss  McKee' s  history  seems  appropriate  here,  as  it  relates 
to  problems  encountered  during  the  war  years: 

No  history  of  Home  Economics  Extension  work  in  Illinois  would  be  complete  with- 
out mention  of  the  important  early  work  carried  on  in  and  around  the  larger  ur- 
ban centers:  Chicago,  Rockford,  Peoria,  Springfield,  Alton,  and  Granite  City. 
Organizers  in  urban  areas  had  many  problems  in  common,  one  of  which  was  the 
large  foreign  population  living  in  the  industrial  areas  of  the  cities  close  to 
their  work.  Here  leadership  was  not  easily  available  to  help  in  starting  any 
new  program,  because  the  so-called  "white  collar"  families  lived  away  from  the 
factories  and  did  not  take  part  in  neighborhood  activities.  Industry  over  the 
state  did  furnish  guidance,  considerable  financial  support,  and  sometimes  ar- 
ranged for  contact  with  women  workers  so  that  they  could  be  helped  with  the  most 
immediate  problems  as  related  to  conservation  and  health. 

The  foreign  population,  often  neither  speaking  nor  understanding  English;  steeped 
in  the  ways  and  customs  of  the  Old  World;  with  strong  food  likes  and  dislikes; 
and  suspicious  of  what  they  thought  was  government  intervention;  presented  prob- 
lems different  from  those  encountered  in  the  strictly  rural  areas  of  the  state. 

Often  explanations  and  directions  had  to  be  given  to  the  children  who  did  speak 
and  understand  English.   Then  they  could  take  this  information  home  to  their 
parents.   One  worker  said:  "I  meet  misunderstandings  with  painstaking  repeti- 
tion." Extension  workers  rendered  a  great  service  to  these  foreign  families  in 
explaining  what  the  government  wanted  and  why  food  conservation  was  necessary. 

96 


The  emergency  situation  had  made  it  possible  for  Extension  workers  to  meet  wom- 
en and  help  them,  and  the  work  done  had  met  a  real  need.   But  for  several  years  af- 
ter the  war  there  was  no  organized  extension  work  in  and  around  the  large  urban  cen- 
ters.  The  main  emphasis  was  placed  in  rural  areas,  including  not  only  farms  but 
small  towns  with  rural  interests. 

State  staff  members  were  still  appearing  on  programs  for  Farmers*  Institutes, 
parent-teachers*  associations,  Teachers'  Institutes'  Chautauquas,  community  con- 
ferences, high  schools,  Child  Welfare  Leagues,  community  fairs,  Granges,  household 
science  clubs,  and  other  groups. 

The  county  home  bureaus  were  being  regarded  with  increased  recognition  and  added 
respect,  and  there  was  an  increasing  interest  in  girls'  club  work.   Women  were  will- 
ing to  assume  added  responsibility  as  they  began  to  realize  that  the  county  home  bu- 
reau was  their   organization.   As  the  program  grew  in  significance,  the  next  logical 
step  was  to  appoint  specialists  at  the  state  level  in  such  subject-matter  areas  as 
clothing,  home  furnishings,  home  management,  health,  food  and  nutrition,  and  child 
care  and  training.  These  all  contributed  to  Miss  Lita  Bane's  "Aim  for  the  Homemaker": 

To  have  the  home  economically  sound,  mechanically  convenient,  physically 
healthful,  morally  wholesome,  mentally  stimulating,  artistically  satis- 
fying, socially  responsible,  spiritually  inspiring,  and  founded  upon  mu- 
tual affection  and  respect. 

By  1949  home  bureau  membership  had  exceeded  50,000,  with  all  counties  organized 
except  Calhoun  and  Hamilton.   There  was  a  growing  interest  in  projects  related  to 
community  welfare,  and  the  Illinois  Home  Bureau  Federation,  which  had  been  organized 
in  1924,  was  regularly  represented  on  the  Illinois  Women's  Legislative  Conference, 
composed  of  delegates  from  many  women's  organizations  in  the  state.  County  meetings 
had  increased  to  more  than  50,000  annually. 

In  1956  all  county  home  bureau  executive  boards  voted  to  form  county  home  eco- 
nomics extension  councils.   These  councils,  with  membership  of  10  to  20  persons,  meet 
once  a  month  and  are  responsible  for  development  and  administration  of  county  programs. 

In  1962  the  name  County  Home  Bureau  was  changed  to  County  Homemakers  Extension 
Association,  and  the  county  councils  and  county  executive  boards  were  combined  into 
one  unit. 


97 


HORSE  PULLING  CONTESTS 


As  a  combined  extension  and  research  project,  more  than  100  horse  pulling  contests 
were  conducted  at  various  places  in  Illinois  during  the  years  1927  to  1936,  with  more 
than  1,300  farmer-owned  teams  of  horses  and  mules  participating. 

Before  each  contest  all  horses  were  weighed  and  measured  for  various  physical 
characteristics  by  C.W.  Crawford  in  the  Department  of  Animal  Husbandry.   Analysis  of 
the  data  indicated  a  fairly  close  correlation  between  weight  and  pulling  ability,  meas- 
ured by  a  Collin's  dynamometer.   The  best  records  were  made  by  big  horses  with  com- 
pact, muscular  build,  deep  chests,  large  heart  girth,  and  energetic  but  calm  disposi- 
tion.  Sharp  shoes,  thorough  training,  and  skillful  driving  were  also  of  great  help. 

The  state  record  for  teams  weighing  less  than  3,000  pounds  was  made  in  1932  by 
a  pair  of  geldings  belonging  to  Willard  Rhoads,  Springfield.   Weighing  2,920  pounds, 
they  lifted  2,825  pounds  on  the  dynamometer  and  pulled  it  27-1/2  feet  in  a  contest  at 
Tuscola.   For  teams  weighing  3,000  pounds  or  more,  the  record  was  made  in  June,  1935, 
at  Wheaton  by  a  4,090-pound  pair  of  gray  geldings  belonging  to  Charles  N.  Latt,  Sand- 
wich.  They  lifted  3,400  pounds  on  the  dynamometer  and  pulled  it  27-1/2  feet. 


98 


HORSES  FOR  FARM  POWER 


During  the  1920' s  and  early  1930' s,  before  tractors  had  become  the  main  source  of 
power  in  crop  production,  farmers  were  much  interested  in  ways  of  making  most  effi- 
cient use  of  horses.   Staff  members  in  the  departments  of  Agricultural  Engineering 
and  Animal  Husbandry  studied  this  problem  from  two  points  of  view.   One  approach  was 
to  find  the  most  efficient  big-team  hitches  for  accomplishing  field  work,  and  the 
other  was  to  conduct  pulling  contests  using  a  dynamometer  to  learn  what  kinds  of  horses 
would  best  meet  the  power  requirements. 

It  was  soon  found  that  some  type  of  tandem  hitch  was  much  more  efficient  than  a 
side-by-side  hitch  if  more  than  two  horses  were  to  be  used  in  a  given  operation.   The 
tandem  hitch  eliminates  most  side  draft,  which  meant  that  4  horses  hitched  tandem  2 
and  2  could  walk  20  miles  a  day  and  plow  five  acres  more  easily  than  4  horses  hitched 
abreast  could  walk  16  miles  and  plow  4  acres.   One  man  could  thus  accomplish  more 
work. 

From  a  statistical  study  of  certain  measurements  and  other  characteristics  of 
horses  entered  in  pulling  contests  held  at  county  fairs,  it  was  concluded  that  weight , 
heart  girth,  shoeing,  and  physical  condition  were  definitely  associated  with  pulling 
ability.   As  weight  increased,  pulling  ability  also  increased,  regardless  of  whether 
the  other  factors  were  held  constant.   Well -shod  horses  had  considerable  advantage 
over  those  that  were  not. 


99 


HORTICULTURAL  USES  FOR  HARDWOOD  BARK 


Large  amounts  of  hardwood  bark  are  produced  by  midwestern  sawmills  and  paper  mills. 
For  many  years  this  was  considered  waste  material,  and  most  of  it  was  burned.   Under 
new  anti-pollution  laws,  the  bark  can  no  longer  be  burned  and  dumping  has  become  a 
problem.   At  the  same  time,  producers  of  ornamental  plants  have  been  looking  for  low- 
cost  substitutes  for  peat  moss,  perlite,  and  other  materials  commonly  used  in  growing 
and  packaging  their  plants. 

J.B.  Gartner  and  associates  in  ornamental  horticulture  have  been  working  since 
1968  to  determine  the  value  of  hardwood  bark  as  a  soil  amendment  or  as  a  growing  me- 
dium for  various  container -grown  ornamentals,  as  well  as  for  packaging  and  artificial 
balling  of  nursery  stock.   In  their  initial  work  ground  bark  was  substituted  for  peat 
in  the  standard  mix  of  one-third  each  of  soil,  peat,  and  perlite  by  volume.   In  some 
tests,  coarse  masonry  sand  replaced  soil  with  no  adverse  effects.   In  later  experi- 
ments, a  mix  of  two-thirds  bark  and  one-third  sand  was  used.   In  order  to  offset  de- 
composition, they  found  it  necessary  to  add  nitrogen  to  the  mix.   The  formula  recom- 
mended is  6  pounds  of  ammonium  nitrate,  5  pounds  of  superphosphate,  1  pound  of  ele- 
mental sulfur,  and  1  pound  of  iron  sulfate  to  each  cubic  yard  of  the  mix.  This  should 
be  thoroughly  mixed  in  a  drum  or  rotary  mixer  and  stockpiled  for  a  minimum  of  six 
weeks,  after  which  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Nurseries  making  use  of  bark  claim  the  following  advantages: 

1.  It  is  fairly  economical  and  readily  available. 

2.  It  has  excellent  waterholding  capacity. 

3.  It  provides  a  well-drained  and  well-aerated  medium  that  is  difficult  to 
overwater. 

4.  Bark  mixes  do  not  dry  out  rapidly,  and  plants  are  able  to  obtain  water 
readily  from  them. 

5.  Bark  contains  the  minor  elements  essential  for  plant  growth. 

6.  Bark  is  light  in  weight  and  easily  handled. 


100 


HOW  MILK  IS  MADE 


It  is  well  known  that  cows  vary  widely  in  their  ability  to  produce  milk.   Milk  also 
varies  widely  in  composition,  especially  in  fat  content,  and  some  of  the  factors  re- 
sponsible for  this  variation  have  been  determined.   Research  in  selective  breeding, 
feeding,  and  management  has  made  it  possible  for  dairymen  to  increase  the  efficiency 
with  which  their  herds  convert  feed  into  the  highly  prized  human  food  we  know  as  milk. 

But  these  external  measurements  have  no  direct  relation  to  the  physiological  ques- 
tion of  how  the  cow  makes  miik,  or  to  the  much  deeper  and  more  complicated  question 
of  how  the  cells  in  the  mammary  gland  are  able  to  transform  the  end  products  of  diges- 
tion into  milk.   B.L.  Larson  and  associates  in  the  Department  of  Dairy  Science  under- 
took to  answer  this  question  in  biochemical  terms,  by  taking  a  look  at  the  milk- 
synthesizing  factory—the  individual  cells  —  and  following  the  production  lines  that 
fabricate  the  individual  constituents  of  milk. 

Using  a  new  approach,  mammary  tissue  was  isolated  from  a  cow  immediately  after 
slaughter.   The  secretory  cells  from  this  tissue  were  then  grown  in  a  controlled  lab- 
oratory environment  over  a  period  of  several  months. 

In  the  procedure  that  was  developed,  mammary  gland  tissue  is  removed  from  the 
cow,  the  individual  cells  are  loosened  from  the  closely  surrounding  connective  mate- 
rials by  using  an  enzyme  called  collagenase,  after  which  the  cells  are  transplanted 
into  glass  flasks.   A  liquid  medium  added  to  these  flasks  supplies  the  nutrients  the 
cells  would  ordinarily  get  from  the  blood  stream  of  the  living  animal.  The  cell  cul- 
tures are  kept  in  an  incubator  at  normal  body  temperature.   As  the  flasks  become 
crowded  with  too  many  growing  cells,  some  are  removed  to  start  new  daughter  cultures. 
Some  of  the  cell  cultures  have  been  kept  living  and  reproducing  for  several  years. 

But  there  were  difficulties.   For  a  short  time  after  they  were  placed  in  culture, 
the  cells  continued  to  make  milk  constituents,  but  they  lost  this  ability  after  a  few 
days.   The  reason  is  not  yet  known,  but  the  same  sort  of  thing  has  been  observed  by 
other  investigators  in  cell  cultures  from  other  specialized  tissues  such  as  kidney, 
heart,  liver,  and  lung.   Furthermore,  the  changes  have  many  similarities  to  what  hap- 
pens when  a  cell  becomes  cancerous.   The  tissue  culture  technique  is  being  used  ex- 
tensively in  cancer  research  today  to  study  cellular  functions  and  changes. 

One  of  the  first  properties  lost  by  mammary  cells  in  culture  is  the  ability  to 
synthesize  lactose  (milk  sugar)  from  glucose  (blood  sugar) .   Although  much  is  known 
about  the  metabolic  pathway  for  lactose  synthesis,  the  factors  controlling  it  are  not 
yet  fully  understood. 

Studies  with  radioactive  tracer  elements  have  shown  that  alpha-  and  beta-casein, 
alpha-lactalbumin  and  beta-lactoglobulin--four  of  the  several  proteins  in  cow's  milk-- 
are  synthesized  in  the  secretory  cells  from  amino  acids,  whereas  some  of  the  other 
milk  proteins  are  preformed  in  the  blood  stream. 

When  cell  cultures  were  used  with  a  defined  nutrient  medium  to  determine  the  ami- 
no acids  required  by  the  secretory  cell  to  synthesize  some  of  the  milk  proteins  just 
mentioned,  mammary  cells  were  found  capable  of  synthesizing  the  usual  nonessential 


101 


amino  acids  and  required  the  usual  essential  amino  acids,  contrary  to  what  had  been 
postulated  earlier. 

The  close  interrelationships  of  the  constituents  of  milk  and  the  complexity  of 
the  individual  biochemical  pathways  on  which  they  are  synthesized  suggest  that  the 
difference  between  a  high-  and  a  low-producing  cow  may  lie  in  the  limitation  set  by 
a  single  enzyme  which  is  in  short  supply  somewhere  along  one  of  the  pathways.  If  con- 
tinued work  on  this  project  makes  it  possible  to  answer  on  a  molecular  basis  the 
question,  "How  is  milk  made?"',  it  should  be  possible  to  do  an  even  better  job  of  ma- 
nipulating dairy  cattle  for  meeting  some  human  food  needs. 


102 


ILLASCO  K-40  COUNTER 


A  liquid  scintillation  radiation  detector  capable  of  measuring  radioactivity  in  human 
beings  and  in  animals  as  large  as  mature  cattle  was  built  and  installed  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois  in  December,  1962.   Popularly  known  as  Illasco  or  the  K-40  counter, 
it  can  measure  gamma  radiation  so  as  to  permit  precise,  objective  measurements  of 
meatiness  in  a  live  animal. 

Use  of  the  device  is  based  on  the  discovery  that  naturally  occurring  nonradioac- 
tive potassium-39  contains  a  small  but  constant  amount  of  radioactive  potassium-40. 
Hence  a  measurement  of  gamma  radiation  from  K-40  in  natural  materials  is,  in  fact,  a 
measurement  of  the  potassium  present. 

In  the  animal  body,  potassium  is  found  mostly  in  the  lean  tissues  and,  within  a 
given  species,  the  potassium  content  of  fat-free,  dry  tissue  is  fairly  constant  among 
healthy  animals.   Theoretically  at  least,  this  makes  it  possible  to  estimate  the  lean 
tissue  in  an  animal  by  simply  measuring  the  gamma  radiation  from  K-40  in  the  live  an- 
imal.  A  few  such  instruments  for  use  on  small  animals  and  humans  had  been  built  at 
other  institutions,  but  at  the  time  of  its  construction,  Illasco  was  the  only  instru- 
ment of  its  kind  large  enough  to  accommodate  cattle.   The  cost  of  its  construction-- 
about  $90, 000- -was  met  by  grants  from  the  Atomic  Energy  Commission  and  the  Illinois 
State  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Two  large  tanks  filled  with  about  200  gallons  of  organic  solvent  containing  chem- 
ical "scintillators"  comprise  the  detector.   The  tanks  are  concave,  and  are  mounted 
on  tracks,  so  that  they  can  be  put  in  position  to  partially  surround  the  animal  to  be 
"counted." 

The  entire  instrument  is  enclosed  in  a  50-ton  vault  with  steel  walls  5  inches 
thick  to  shield  the  highly  sensitive  equipment  from  cosmic  and  environmental  radiation. 
This  shielding  increases  the  sensitivity  of  the  instrument  so  that  accurate  counts  of 
K-40  are  obtained  within  4  to  8  minutes.   Even  so,  the  background  radiation  counts 
may  be  double  the  count  rate  of  a  450-kilogram  steer,  and  background  counts  need  to 
be  made  immediately  before  and  just  after  animal  counts  in  order  to  insure  accuracy. 

Results  with  the  counter  have  been  confirmed  by  slaughter  tests,  and  both  animal 
and  instrument  variations  have  been  sufficiently  minimized  to  demonstrate  that  Illasco 
provides  a  highly  efficient  and  rapid  means  of  estimating  body  lean  tissue  either  in 
the  carcass  or  its  parts  or  in  the  live  animal.   One  might  say  that  Illasco  permits 
the  scientist  to  "slaughter"  the  same  animal  several  times  during  the  course  of  a  sin- 
gle experiment  in  order  to  study  changes  occurring  in  body  lean  tissue. 

As  part  of  a  continuing  breeding  study,  more  than  5,000  pigs  have  been  measured 
for  K-40  during  the  first  ten  years  the  instrument  was  available.  Substantial  numbers 
of  cattle  and  sheep  have  been  studied  in  relation  to  nutrition  and  growth.   In  addi- 
tion, the  equipment  has  had  wide  usage  by  the  Department  of  Physical  Education  in  ob- 
serving men  subjected  to  various  exercise  programs,  and  in  studying  growth,  develop- 
ment, and  physical  activity  of  children. 


103 


Staff  members  closely  associated  with  and  responsible  for  Illasco  have  included 
O.B.  Ross,  who  promoted  the  original  installation  and  financing  of  the  facility;  A.R. 
Twardock  in  Veterinary  Medicine,  who  assisted  in  calibration  and  standardization  of 
the  instrument;  and  T.G.  Lohman,  who  related  K-40  measurements  to  body  composition  in 
animals  and  humans. 


104 


ILLINI  CHRYSANTHEMUMS 


The  story  of  Illini  chrysanthemums  began  in  1908  when  Herman  B.  Dorner  came  to  the 
University  of  Illinois  to  develop  a  teaching  and  research  program  in  floriculture. 
He  was  later  aided  by  Stanley  W.  Hall,  who  joined  the  staff  in  1917,  and  by  John  R. 
Culbert,  who  assumed  responsibility  for  the  breeding  program  in  1946.   The  Illinois 
breeding  program  was  aimed  at  creating  varieties  that  would  be  useful  to  commercial 
flower  growers.   After  ten  years  of  development,  24  new  varieties  were  released,  and 
this  kind  of  effort  has  continued.   Illini  Snowdrift,  for  example,  a  white  variety 
released  in  1950,  had  a  new  feathery  form  which  gave  fresh  impetus  to  the  use  of  chrys- 
anthemums in  corsages,  wedding  bouquets,  and  dainty  arrangements.   More  than  110  va- 
rieties have  been  introduced  to  the  florist  industry  since  1919,  and  the  University 
of  Illinois  is  represented  wherever  chrysanthemums  are  grown,  from  Florida  to  Califor- 
nia, and  from  Sweden  to  Japan. 

Another  aim  of  the  breeding  program  was  to  extend  the  natural  blooming  period  of 
these  attractive  flowers.   Most  greenhouse  varieties  flower  naturally  from  late  Octo- 
ber through  mid-December,  but  no  one  variety  could  be  flowered  during  the  entire  pe- 
riod.  If  a  florist  wanted  a  constant  supply  of  blooms,  he  chose  a  series  of  varieties 
with  natural  blooming  dates  falling  in  successive  intervals  of  about  five  days.   Il- 
lini Bright  Eyes,  with  a  natural  flowering  date  of  December  20,  and  Illini  Cascade, 
which  flowers  January  5,  were  among  a  number  of  late-flowering  varieties  developed  and 
released.   Illini  Cascade  still  has  the  latest  natural  flowering  date  of  any  chrysan- 
themum on  the  market. 

The  next  logical  step  in  extending  the  blooming  period  was  year-round  flowering. 
Research  had  shown  that  by  artificially  controlling  day  length  and  temperature,  chrys- 
anthemums could  be  flowered  every  day  of  the  year.   For  example,  a  certain  variety 
that  year  after  year  set  its  buds  about  September  1  and  flowered  November  5,  could  be 
made  to  flower  on  October  5  by  giving  it  artificial  short  days  starting  on  August  1. 
And  flower  buds  could  be  prevented  from  forming  by  lighting  the  plants  in  the  middle 
of  the  night.   Also,  for  flower  buds  to  form  a  night  temperature  of  60°  F.  had  to  be 
provided.   It  turned  out  that  relatively  few  of  the  existent  varieties  would  respond 
to  such  treatment.   One  such  was  Illini  Igloo,  released  in  1953,  which  rapidly  became 
a  standard  variety  both  in  the  north  and  in  Florida. 

Originally  a  cut  flower,  the  chrysanthemum  rapidly  became  the  No.  1  potted  plant 
with  the  advent  of  year-round  flowering  and  the  development  of  satisfactory  varieties. 
The  Illini  breeding  program  met  these  changing  market  demands  by  developing  and  re- 
leasing Illini  Trophy  in  1968.  The  high  summer  temperatures  of  the  midwest  and  south 
posed  serious  problems  of  heat  delay  to  the  grower  of  chrysanthemums.  Illini  Hot  Pink, 
a  potted  chrysanthemum  released  in  1972,  is  the  culmination  of  years  of  breeding  and 
development  to  find  a  heat -tolerant,  nonfading  pink  variety. 

Illini  Spinwheel,  released  in  1971,  is  the  first  of  a  new  type  of  potted  chrysan- 
themum to  reach  the  market.   It  was  bred  specifically  as  a  small  potted  plant  that 
could  conveniently  be  sold  in  the  supermarket,  variety  store,  or  garden  center  at  a 
low  price  for  display  in  the  home.   The  small  dainty  white  flowers  are  borne  in  pro- 
fusion and  cover  the  small  compact  plant. 

All  of  this  work  has  helped  to  make  the  chrysanthemum  the  most  important  year- 
round  flower,  instead  of  just  an  important  flower  for  autumn  and  early  winter. 

105 


ILLINI  NELLIE 


W.W.  Yapp  of  the  Department  of  Dairy  Science  in  1961  began  a  report  on  Illini  Nellie 
with  these  words: 

"This  is  the  story  of  a  Brown  Swiss  cow--a  majestic  dairy  cow  that  was  born, 
made  a  world's  record  for  both  milk  and  butterfat,  produced  four  sons  and 
four  daughters,  lived  an  illustrious  and  highly  publicized  life,  and  then 
died  at  an  advanced  age  on  the  University  of  Illinois  dairy  farm." 

In  April,  1927,  the  University  staff  had  decided  to  add  Brown  Swiss  to  the  well- 
established  herds  of  Holsteins,  Jerseys,  Guernseys,  and  Ayrshires  that  had  for  many 
years  been  maintained  on  its  dairy  farm.   A  few  choice  Brown  Swiss  milking  cows  were 
selected  from  the  herd  of  H.W.  Bischoff  of  Lockport,  Illinois,  who  had  decided  to 
dispose  of  his  herd.   A  single  cow  with  the  registered  name  of  McJohn's  Nellie  M. 
was  purchased  from  Ira  Inman  of  Beloit,  Wisconsin.  On  November  16,  1927,  at  the  age 
of  three  years,  seven  months,  and  twenty-eight  days,  this  cow  gave  birth  to  a  strong, 
vigorous  heifer  calf  destined  to  become  world  famous  as  Illini  Nellie. 


Advanced  Registry  Records 


Lactations 


Age  at  begin- 
ning  of  test 


Days  in 
milk 


Milk 
(pounds) 


Butterfat 
(pounds) 


2  yr. 

3  yr. 

5  yr. 

6  yr. 

8  yr. 

9  yr. 

11  yr. 

12  yr. 


5  mo.  , 

9  mo.  . 
5  mo.  . 

10  mo, 
5  mo. 
10  mo, 
7  mo. 
5  mo. 


5  days 
15  days 
15  days 

,  3  days 
28  days 

,  2  days 
7  days 
27  days 


Total  milk  for  8  lactations 

*Both  world's  records  for  the  breed. 


365 
365 
365 
365 
365 
365 
259 
160 


17,580.1 
21,398.9 
24,633.9 
24,693.8 
29,569.5* 
27,897.6 
10,847.5 
8,870.2 

165,492.5 


638.11 
802.47 
949.39 
950.11 
1,200.41' 
1,062.80 
397.21 
308.35 

6,308.85 


Her  first  milking  was  on  April  25,  1930,  and  the  last  on  November  8,  1940.   She 
died  on  November  19,  1940. 

This  record  represents  50.6  pounds  of  milk  for  every  day  of  the  productive  life 
of  IlHni  Nellie,  enough  to  provide  one  quart  of  milk  each  day  for  each  of  25  fami- 
lies for  ten  years. 


106 


Complete   Lactation   Records 


Lactations Days  in  milk Milk  (pounds) Butterfat  (pounds) 

1  449  19,692.4  739.19 

2  509  27,625.4  1,049.77 

3  431  27,383.2  1,096.11 

4  438  27,334.4  1,082.82 

5  466  34,843.6  1,359.07 

6  588  37,298.2  1,447.01 

7  283  11,392.8  410.21 

8  177  9,096.8  316.76 

Lifetime  production  194,665.8  7,498.94 

In  addition  to  the  two  world's  records  mentioned  earlier,  Illini  Nellie  also 
held  the  following  world's  records  for  the  Brown  Swiss  breed: 

Most  milk  in  the  first  five  lactations  (365)  days  each),  117,876  pounds 

Most  butterfat  in  the  first  five  lactations,  4,539  pounds 

Youngest  cow  of  the  breed  to  produce  5,000  pounds  of  butterfat,  age  nine 
years,  two  months,  and  20  days 

Youngest  cow  of  the  breed  to  produce  125,000  pounds  of  milk,  age  nine 
years  and  seventeen  days 

Single  day's  milk  (three-times-a-day  milking),  106.3  pounds 

30  day's  milk  (three-times-a-day  milking),  3,154  pounds 

Not  until  twelve  years  after  her  death  did  another  Brown  Swiss  cow  make  a 
world's  butterfat  record  to  exceed  that  of  Illini  .Nellie. 


107 


ILLINOIS  BEEF  INDUSTRY 


The  purpose  of  a  study  by  Neil  R.  Martin,  David  C.  Petriz,  and  Roy  Van  Arsdall  was 
to  describe  the  physical  structure  of  the  Illinois  beef  industry,  including  the  pro- 
duction of  feeder  cattle,  cattle  feeding,  marketing  patterns,  and  location  of  slaugh- 
tering facilities. 

The  main  beef-producing  activity  in  Illinois  has  been  cattle  feeding,  but  this 
has  been  decreasing  in  recent  years  while  the  number  of  beef  cows  has  increased  sub- 
stantially, from  380,000  in  1950  to  795,000  in  1969.   Most  herds  are  small,  although 
larger  herds  have  increased  in  importance  in  recent  years.   On  January  1,  1968,  72 
percent  of  all  farms  reporting  beef  cows  had  fewer  than  20  head,  but  21  percent  of 
all  beef  cows  were  accounted  for  by  the  5  percent  of  herds  consisting  of  50  or  more 
cows.   The  popular  beef  breeds  in  1968  were  Angus  50  percent,  Hereford  27  percent, 
and  Polled  Hereford  17  percent. 

Feeder  calf  production  in  Illinois  has  grown  steadily  in  recent  years,  but  Il- 
linois feedlots  continue  to  depend  largely  on  out-of-state  sources  for  their  feeder 
calves.   Average  shipments  into  the  state  have  been  nearly  1.1  million  head  a  year 
since  1955.   Prior  to  1966,  most  of  these  calves  came  from  the  plains  states,  but 
by  1968  nearly  half  of  these  were  replaced  by  shipments  from  Texas,  Oklahoma,  Mis- 
souri, Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Mississippi,  Tennessee,  and  Kentucky. 

Terminal  markets  have  historically  been  the  principal  outlet,  but  their  rela- 
tive importance  has  declined  in  recent  years  to  about  26  percent  of  total  sales, 
while  sales  through  direct  buying  points  have  increased  to  about  three-fourths  of 
the  total,  largely  because  of  increased  interest  in  marketing  slaughter  cattle  on  a 
carcass-grade  and  weight  basis. 


108 


ILLINOIS  INBRED  LINES  OF  CORN  AND  CORN  HYBRIDS 


Since  the  early  1930' s  many  inbred  lines  of  corn  have  been  tested  by  top-crossing 
on  open-pollinated  varieties  as  well  as  by  interbreeding  to  produce  hybrids.   As 
desirable  lines  were  found  they  were  released  to  farmers  and  to  seedsmen--in  the 
early  days  of  hybrid  corn,  particularly  to  the  Illinois  Seed  Producers  Association-- 
for  multiplication  and  for  production  of  single  crosses  in  quanity  for  use  by  farmers 

Qualities  sought  in  such  lines  included  not  only  acre  yield  but  erect  plants, 
uniform  height  of  ear,  resistance  to  insect  and  disease  damage,  and  early  maturity. 
By  1960  about  1,200  double-cross  hybrids  had  been  tested  and  released. 

The  making  and  testing  of  all  possible  hybrid  combinations  among  available  inbred 
lines  is  a  tremendous  task.   With  only  100  inbred  lines,  for  example,  it  would  be 
possible  to  produce  100  top  crosses,  4,950  single  crosses,  the  same  number  of  three- 
way  crosses,  and  nearly  12,000,000  double  crosses.   This  makes  prediction  studies 
especially  valuable,  and  the  Illinois  program  has  included  this  procedure  for  many 
years. 

Three-way  crosses  are  particularly  useful  for  this  purpose,  especially  if  a  de- 
sirable seed-parent  single-cross  strain  is  available  for  use  as  a  tester.   Three-way 
crosses  provide  information  on  specific  hybrids,  and  often  make  it  unnecessary  to 
test  inbred  lines  in  top  crosses  and  single  crosses.   Such  data  are  shown  for  32 
Illinois  inbred  lines  in  various  hybrid  combinations  in  Bulletin  657  of  the  Station. 


109 


ILLINOIS  SOILS—BEING  DEPLETED  BY  HEAVY  CROPPING? 


A  100-bushel  corn  crop  removes  about  90  pounds  of  nitrogen,  15  pounds  of  phosphorus, 
and  20  pounds  of  potassium  from  each  acre  of  land.   Soybeans  produce  most  of  their 
own  nitrogen,  but  a  36-bushel  yield  will  remove  13  pounds  of  phosphorus  and  nearly 
42  pounds  of  potassium.   It  is  appropriate  to  ask,  therefore,  whether  continued  crop- 
ping may  eventually  cause  Illinois  soils  to  lose  their  ability  to  produce  profitable 
crop  yields. 

L.F.  Welch  of  the  Department  of  Agronomy  undertook  to  answer  this  question  by 
calculating  the  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium  added  to  and  removed 
from  Illinois  soils  year  by  year  from  1940  to  1970.   Added  nutrients  were  considered 
to  be  only  those  applied  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  fertilizer,  without  including  any 
nutrients  from  legumes,  manure,  or  sewage  sludge.   Nutrient  removal  was  calculated 
as  the  amount  harvested  in  corn,  soybeans,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  and  alfalfa  hay, 
using  average  yields  for  each  year  for  each  crop  and  acres  reported  harvested. 

These  calculations  showed  that  in  1940  the  harvested  crops  removed  220,000  more 
tons  of  nitrogen,  53,000  more  tons  of  phosphorus,  and  88,000  more  tons  of  potassium 
than  were  added  as  fertilizer  that  year.   Fertilizer  use  increased  steadily,  but  even 
in  1960  fertilizer  additions  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium  were,  respective- 
ly, only  31,  68,  and  47  percent  as  much  as  the  amounts  removed  in  harvested  crops. 
The  seven  crops  included  in  the  calculation  probably  account  for  more  than  95  percent 
of  the  total  fertilizer  usage  in  Illinois. 

Not  until  about  1965  did  the  amount  of  fertilizer  added  begin  to  exceed  the  cor- 
responding amounts  of  nutrient  removal  in  harvested  crops.   Since  then,  the  increase 
in  what  might  be  called  the  positive  balance  has  been  dramatic.   In  1940  the  amounts 
of  added  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium  were,  respectively,  only  1,5,  and  3  per- 
cent of  the  amounts  removed  by  harvested  crops,  but  by  1969  these  percentages  had  in- 
creased, respectively,  to  129,  167,  and  130. 

It  is  perhaps  fair  to  say  that  Illinois  soils  were  being  "mined"  of  phosphorus 
prior  to  1964  and  of  potassium  prior  to  1966;  but  this  has  changed  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  fertility  status  of  these  soils  must  now  be  increasing,  and  should  be  re- 
flected in  higher  soil  tests  for  phosphorus  and  potassium  than  were  common  up  to  a 
few  years  ago. 


110 


ILLINOIS  SOILS'  PRODUCTIVITY 


Soil  productivity  commonly  refers  to  the  capacity  of  a  soil  to  support  plant  growth. 
In  this  sense  it  is  influenced  by  soil  properties,  climatic  conditions,  and  manage- 
ment inputs  that  are  available  for  producing  the  crop. 

Soils  vary  in  their  capacity  to  provide  nutrients,  water,  air,  and  space  for  plant 
growth  and  development  at  rates  that  are  fast  enough  for  profitable  crop  production. 
Topography  may  influence  water  intake,  soil  erosion,  and  the  efficiency  of  machine 
operation. 

Climatic  conditions  may  cause  variations  in  yield  from  year  to  year  that  amount 
to  as  much  as  20  percent  above  or  below  a  10-year  average.   (See  Station  Bulletin 
610.)   Annual  rainfall,  its  seasonal  distribution,  length  of  growing  season,  and 
freeze-dates  are  all  important  factors  affecting  soil  productivity.   Rainfall  may 
run  off  a  sloping  soil  so  rapidly  that  little  water  is  stored  in  the  soil  for  crop 
use.   Slopes  facing  south  receive  more  solar  radiation  in  spring  and  summer,  and 
hence  are  likely  to  warm  earlier  and  dry  faster  than  north-facing  slopes  in  the  same 
general  area,  but  are  also  more  likely  to  be  subject  to  drouth. 

The  application  of  management  inputs  (using  this  term  in  the  agronomic  sense) 
can  have  a  marked  effect  on  soil  productivity.   Examples  are  limestone,  low-cost 
nitrogen,  earlier  planting,  less  space  between  rows  of  corn,  more  plants  per  acre, 
improved  seed,  new  hybrid  varieties,  more  powerful  machinery,  and  selective  herbi- 
cides.  (See  Extension  Circular  1016  for  details.) 

Productivity  of  soils  can  also  be  evaluated  on  the  basis  of  economic  returns  by 
discovering  the  farming  systems  that  prove  most  profitable.   Earl  R.  Swanson  in  the 
Department  of  Agricultural  Economics  used  linear  programming  to  develop  the  highest- 
return  farming  systems  that  would  maximize  labor  income-- returns  to  labor  and 
management --per  acre  of  land,  per  hour  of  labor,  and  per  dollar  of  money  spent  dur- 
ing the  first  year  of  reorganization. 

In  order  to  meet  the  objective  of  maximum  labor  income  per  acre  of  land  on 
Drummer-Flanagan  soils,  a  one-man  farm  of  95  acres  or  less  needed  to  feed  rather 
large  numbers  of  hogs  and  cattle  and  to  have  40  percent  of  the  land  in  standover 
legumes.   With  larger  farms,  litters  of  hogs  needed  to  increase,  while  cattle  feeding 
decreased.   Total  labor  income  in  1958  reached  a  maximum  at  a  farm  size  of  257  acres. 

When  maximum  labor  income  per  hour  of  labor  was  set  as  the  objective,  a  cash- 
grain  system  gave  the  highest  return  per  hour  when  actual  labor  use  was  less  than 
9  months  out  of  a  one-man  and  one -boy  labor  supply  of  15.3  months.   Most  efficient 
use  of  labor  beyond  9  months  required  the  introduction  of  cattle  fed  on  pasture  in 
order  to  maximize  labor  income  per  hour  spent  working.   When  labor  used  went  beyond 
14.5  months,  it  was  necessary  to  increase  the  hog  enterprise  to  obtain  the  desired 
objective. 

Maximum  cash  balance  per  dollar  of  cash  expenses  gave  a  different  picture.   With 
annual  cash  expenses  of  $1,600,  a  one-man  160-acre  farm  would  obtain  the  highest 
return  per  dollar  by  growing  soybeans,  assuming  10-year  average  prices  for  the  period 


111 


1946- 195S.   As  cash  expenses  were  increased  in  the  model  used,  corn  replaced  soybeans 
as  the  main  crop.   Between  $2,500  and  $9,100,  the  maximum  amount  of  corn  could  be 
grown  with  a  "medium  level  of  management,"  but  when  annual  spending  exceeded  $9,100, 
it  was  necessary  to  shift  to  a  "moderately  high  level  of  management"  in  order  to 
insure  maximum  returns  from  the  heavier  applications  of  fertilizer  that  accounted 
for  the  increased  cash  expenses.   Hogs  became  a  part  of  the  highest-return  system 
beginning  at  $3,000  annual  cash  expenses;  with  cattle  feeding  required  beyond  the 
$10,400  level.   Similar  changes  were  indicated  for  the  320-acre  farm  with  a  one-man 
and  one-boy  labor  supply. 

Detailed  results  are  given  in  Station  Bulletin  629.   A  parallel  study  of  Tama 
and  Muscatine  soils  will  be  found  in  Bulletin  602. 


112 


ILLINOIS  SOIL  SURVEY 


Seldom  has  a  major  research  project  with  its  related  educational  aspects  been  carried 
on  for  three-quarters  of  a  century  with  the  same  basic  objectives  and  continuing  sig- 
nificant accomplishments.   The  Soil  Survey  in  Illinois,  one  of  the  strongest  soil 
survey  programs  in  the  country,  is  such  a  project.   It  was  initiated  in  1902  in  coop- 
eration with  the  Bureau  of  Soils  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Seventy-five  years  later  most  counties  in  the  state  have  a  complete  soil  report 
available.  A  few  have  soil  maps  only  or  soil  association  maps  and  reports.  For  six 
counties  only  limited  information  is  available,  but  in  each  case  the  parent  soil  ma- 
terials are  similar  to  those  of  one  or  more  adjoining  counties  for  which  complete  re- 
ports have  been  made. 

In  the  early  years  of  the  survey,  soils  were  mapped  rapidly  and  only  broad  soil 
types  were  delineated.   As  the  work  progressed,  it  became  evident  that  finer  soil 
separations  were  necessary  to  increase  the  usefulness  of  the  reports,  and  in  1933 
Illinois  adopted  the  "place  name"  system  of  soil  nomenclature.   In  the  most  recent 
reports  soils  are  classified  according  to  uniform  nationwide  procedures  initiated  by 
the  National  Cooperative  Soil  Survey,  which  includes  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture and  the  state  agricultural  experiment  stations. 

The  latest  soil  maps,  prepared  from  aerial  photographs,  are  drawn  on  a  scale  of 
1 :20,000(approximately  3  inches  to  a  mile;  5  cm.  to  a  kilometer)  or  1:15,840  (4  inches 
to  a  mile;  6.25  cm.   to  a  kilometer)   so  that  excellent  detail  is  provided.   Vari- 
ous shadings  are  used  to  indicate  such  soil  features  as  surface  color,  erosion  con- 
ditions, and  landscape  position.    Soil  boundaries  are  drawn  in  and  symbols  are  in- 
serted to  show  the  soil  name. 

Physical  and  chemical  properties  of  the  various  soils,  as  determined  by  labora- 
tory measurements  and  analyses,  are  included  in  each  soil  report,  together  with  esti- 
mated crop  yields  under  specifically  defined  management  methods.   Soil  management 
recommendations  are  based  in  part  on  consultations  with  farmers,  agronomists,  engi- 
neers, and  others  in  order  that  the  reports  may  be  of  as  much  value  as  possible  to 
persons  who  will  be  likely  to  use  them. 

Certain  kinds  of  soils  tend  to  occur  together  in  adjacent  areas  because  they 
have  developed  from  similar  parent  materials.   Such  groups  are  called  soil  associa- 
tions.  Those  found  in  Illinois  have  been  designated,  for  convenience,  as  associa- 
tions A  to  Z.   More  than  half  of  the  state  which  contains  36,000,000  acres,  is  repre- 
sented by  six  of  these  associations. 

Soil  Association 


Symbol Name 


Percent 

Acres 

of  state 

4,761,000 

13.2 

4,382,000 

12.1 

2,989,000 

8.3 

2,888,000 

8.0 

2,613,000 

7.2 

2,519,000 

7.0 

20,152,000 

55.8 

A  Joy-Tama-Muscatine-Ipava-Sable 

W  Littleton-Proctor-Plano-Camben-Hurst-Ginat 

Q  Ava-Bluford-Wynoose 

N  Clary-Clinton-Keomah 

B  Sidell-Catlin-Flanagan-Drummer 

Z  Lawson-Beaucoup- Darwin -Haymond- Bel knap 

Total 


113 


Since  climate  is  an  important  factor  in  soil  development  and  is  responsible  for 
many  soil  differences,  maps  showing  average  annual  temperature,  precipitation,  and 
frost -free  days  in  Illinois  are  included  in  the  reports.  (See  figures  8,  11,  12,  13 , 
and  14  in  Station  Bulletin  725.) 

The  Illinois  Soil  Survey  has  been  conducted  under  the  sucessive  leadership  of 
G.G.  Hopkins,  J.G.  Mosier,  R.S.  Smith,  R.T.  Odell,  and  J.B.  Fehrcnbacher.   Others 
among  the  mapping  personnel  for  ten  years  or  longer  include  J.D.  Alexander,  0.1. 
Ellis,  F.A.  Fisher,  G.E.  Gentle,  S.V.  Holt,  D.C.  Maxwell,  E.A.  Norton,  B.W.  Ray, 
E.C.A.  Runge,  G.D.  Smith,  H.W.  Stewart,  F.  W.  Wascher,  H.L.  Wascher,  H.C.  Wheeler', 
E.P.  Whiteside,  Fric  Winters,  and  .John  Woddard . 


114 


IMMUNIZATION  AGAINST  POX  IN  DOMESTIC  FOWL 


Although  fowl  pox  had  been  described  as  early  as  1869,  the  virus  nature  of  the  causa- 
tive agent  was  not  recognized  until  1902.   By  1908  it  had  been  shown  that  cutaneous 
fowl  pox  and  avian  diphtheria  were  different  manifestations  of  the  same  disease. 
Cutaneous  vaccination  of  chickens  with  living  fowl-pox  virus  produced  a  high-grade 
immunity  which  persisted  for  some  time,  but  there  were  problems.   Egg  production 
often  dropped  after  vaccination  of  laying  flocks,  and  many  chickens  died  in  flocks 
that  were  suffering  from  parasitic  or  other  diseases  at  the  time  of  vaccination. 

Beginning  about  1932,  Robert  Graham  and  E.H.  Barger  developed  a  pigeon-pox 
vaccine  which  could  be  applied  by  the  feather-follicle  method  without  producing  any 
unfavorable  reactions.   It  proved  to  be  very  useful  in  vaccinating  laying  flocks  for 
the  prevention  of  fowl  pox,  even  though  the  resulting  immunity  was  neither  so  strong 
nor  so  lasting  as  that  produced  by  fowl-pox  vaccine.   The  pigeon  virus  was  applied 
by  rubbing  a  small  defeathered  area  on  the  thigh  with  a  cotton  swab  that  had  been 
dipped  in  the  virus  suspension. 

A  later  vaccine  consisted  of  a  1  percent  aqueous  suspension  of  the  dried  powder- 
ed scabs  removed  from  pigeons  at  the  height  of  the  disease.   This  vaccine  applied 
vigorously  to  the  open  feather  follicles  resulted  in  well-developed  swellings  of 
the  follicles,  indicating  good  "takes."  Exposure  to  fowl  pox  was  made  at  intervals 
of  one,  two,  three,  four,  and  six  months  after  vaccination,  with  favorable  results. 


115 


INTERNATIONAL  AGRICULTURAL  PROGRAMS1 


The  current  international  programs  in  the  College  of  Agriculture,  some  of  which  be- 
gan in  1952,  have  been  largely  sponsored  and  financed  by  the  Agency  for  Internation- 
al Development  (AID)  of  the  United  States  government.   But  the  interest  of  college 
staff  members  in  foreign  agriculture  and  in  assisting  other  countries  with  some  of 
their  agricultural  problems  began  more  than  fifty  years  ago. 

In  1918-19,  Cyril  G.  Hopkins,  then  head  of  the  Department  of  Agronomy,  was  given 
leave  of  absence  to  make  a  study  of  the  soils  of  Greece.   This  he  did  as  major  and 
deputy  commissioner  in  the  American  Red  Cross  Commission  to  Greece.   He  had  as  a 
close  associate  in  the  project  George  J.  Bouyoucos,  a  former  student,  who  was  re- 
search professor  in  the  Department  of  Soils  at  Michigan  Agricultural  College  (now 
Michigan  State  University).   Together  they  traveled  extensively  in  Greece,  observing 
farming  conditions  and  collecting  samples  of  81  different  soils  which  were  analyzed 
for  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  magnesium,  and  calcium.   Their  final  report 
took  the  form  of  a  bulletin  containing  specific  recommendations  on  soil  management, 
which  was  distributed  to  some  100,000  Greek  farmers  and  landowners.   It  was  also 
printed  in  1922  as  Bulletin  239  of  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  under 
the  title  "How  Greece  Can  Produce  More  Food." 

The  atmosphere  in  the  College  and  Station  was  favorable  to  an  interest  in  for- 
eign agriculture,  partly  because  Dean  Eugene  Davenport,  before  coming  to  Illinois, 
had  spent  a  year  in  Brazil  in  1891-92  helping  to  develop  plans  for  a  "Collegio  Agron- 
omica"  to  be  modeled  after  Michigan  Agricultural  College.   He  had  resigned  his  po- 
sition at  Michigan  to  accept  this  assignment  at  Piracicaba  in  the  state  of  Sao 
Paulo.   On  their  return  to  the  United  States  in  1892,  he  and  Mrs.  Davenport  traveled 
by  way  of  England  in  order  to  visit  the  Rothamsted  Experiment  Station  and  confer 
with  its  director,  Sir  Henry  Gilbert. 

Later  he  was  to  recommend  that  Professor  H.W.  Mumford  be  sent  to  South  America 
to  visit  several  beef-producing  regions,  especially  the  Argentine  Republic,  in  order 
to  study  conditions  under  which  those  countries  were  producing  or  were  likely  to 
be  able  to  produce  meats  to  compete  with  American  beef.   In  1897,  before  coming  to 
Illinois,  Professor  Mumford  investigated  livestock  conditions  in  Great  Britain, 
France,  Belgium,  and  Holland. 

Illinois  in  India 

The  close  relationship  which  the  College  of  Agriculture  has  enjoyed  with  simi- 
lar institutions  in  India  began  in  1932,  when  a  young  man  who  had  been  planning  to 
go  to  the  Congo  as  an  agricultural  missionary  found  himself  instead  making  intensive 
preparation  for  an  equally  challenging  future  at  the  Allahabad  Agricultural  Insti- 
tute, located  across  the  Jumna  River  from  the  city  of  Allahabad  in  north-central 
Indi  a. 

1See  also  "INTSOY"  and  "MUCIA"  articles. 


116 


While  a  student  in  agriculture,  Arthur  T.  Mosher  had  been  active  in  the  Univer- 
sity YMCA,  and  its  able  secretary,  Henry  E.  Wilson,  had  learned  that  Sam  Higgin- 
bottom  was  looking  for  a  young  agricultural  engineer  to  go  to  Allahabad.   He  recom- 
mended Arthur,  and  arranged  for  the  two  to  meet.   Arthur  had  taken  but  one  course 
in  agricultural  engineering,  and  it  was  agreed  that  he  would  spend  a  year  in  spe- 
cial study  with  Professor  J.B.  Davidson,  head  of  the  Department  of  Agricultural  En- 
gineering at  Iowa  State  College,  before  going  to  Allahabad  an  an  assistant  agricul- 
tural engineer.   He  sailed  for  India  in  June,  1935,  and  devoted  most  of  the  next 
twenty  years  to  the  Institute,  the  last  five  as  its  principal. 

While  Mosher  was  in  the  United  States  in  1957,  he  had  conferences  with  the 
Administrator  of  the  Technical  Cooperation  Administration,  U.S.  Department  of  State, 
and  with  officials  and  staff  members  of  the  University  of  Illinois.   These  confer- 
ences were  in  part  responsible  for  initiation  of  the  first  contract  between  the 
University  of  Illinois  and  the  U.S.  government  setting  up  a  cooperative  relationship 
between  the  University  and  the  Allahabad  Agricultural  Institute.   This  contract, 
designated  SCC-14574,  was  authorized  under  Title  IV,  Public  Law  535,  81st  Congress, 
2nd  Session,  and  was  signed  in  June,  1952.   It  was  drawn  for  one  year,  but  was  later 
extended  to  September  30,  1955. 

The  basic  agreement  under  which  this  and  all  subsequent  Inter-Institutional 
arrangements  in  India  were  made  and  carried  out  had  been  signed  in  New  Delhi  in  De- 
cember, 1950.   It  stated  in  part:   "The  government  of  the  United  States  and  the 
Government  of  India  undertake  to  cooperate  with  each  other  in  the  interchange  of 
technical  knowledge  and  skills  and  in  related  activities  designed  to  contribute  to 
the  balanced  and  integrated  development  of  the  economic  resources  and  productive 
capacities  of  India." 

Operational  Agreement  028,  entitled  "Assistance  to  Agricultural  Research,  Edu- 
cation and  Extension  Organizations,"  was  signed  in  April,  1954.   It  provided  for 
Inter-Institutional  arrangements  on  a  regional  basis  among  five  American  universi- 
ties and  forty  Indian  institutions  engaged  in  the  field  of  agricultural  education 
and  research.   This  agreement  provided  for: 

1.  Services  of  45  experienced  American  staff  members  for  teaching 
and  advisory  work  in  India 

2.  Advanced  training  of  80  Indian  staff  members  in  the  United 
States 

3.  Equipment  and  books  to  be  supplied  to  the  Indian  institutions 
to  the  extent  of  $1,628,400 

The  University  of  Illinois  was  assigned  responsibility  for  Region  I,  consisting 
of  the  states  of  Uttar  Pradesh  and  Madhya  Pradesh  in  north-central  India. 

In  the  meantime,  two  men  from  Uttar  Pradesh--A.N.  Jha,  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture, and  H.S.  Sandhu,  deputy  director  of  the  Tarai  State  Farm--had  come  to  the 
United  States.   They  saw  enough  of  American  land-grant  colleges  and  universities  to 
become  convinced  that  the  same  general  plan  of  operation  would  be  both  feasible  and 
highly  useful  in  India.   Mr.  Jha  moved  up  to  Chid"  Secretary  and  was  sue coded  in  the 
agriculture  post  by  K.A.l'.  Stevenson.   All  three  men  worked  enthusiastically  for 
the  establishment  of  a  rural  or  agricultural  university  in  Uttar  Pradesh.   Their 
efforts  produced  significant  results  within  the  next  ten  years. 


117 


The  Survey   Team 

Early  in  the  negotiations  which  led  up  to  Contract  1CA-W-48  it  was  decided 
that  a  two-man  survey  team  would  go  to  India  to  visit  the  colleges  and  research 
institutions  in  Region  I,  to  get  acquainted  with  some  of  the  staff  members  of  these 
institutions,  and  to  familiarize  itself  with  general  conditions  in  the  region.   One 
member  of  the  team  would  return  later  on  a  two-year  assignment  as  Chief  of  Party. 
While  in  India,  the  team  was  to  develop  a  work  plan  for  the  region  and  a  budget  for 
the  first  vear  of  operation,  both  of  which  would  then  be  incorporated  into  and  made 
a  part  of  the  contract. 

The  Illinois  survey  team  consisted  of  R.W.  Jugenheimer,  chairman  of  the  College 
of  Agriculture  Committee  on  Overseas  Programs,  and  Associate  Dean  H.W.  Hannah,  who 
had  agreed  to  accept  assignment  to  India  as  the  first  Chief  of  Party.   They  went 
to  India  in  April,  1955.   They  visited  five  colleges  in  Uttar  Pradesh  and  one  in 
Madhya  Bharat  (later  to  become  part  of  the  new  state  of  Madhya  Pradesh),  the  Tarai 
State  Farm,  and  several  research  institutions.   They  concluded  their  report  with 
the  following  comments: 

The  survey  team  was  impressed  by  the  sincerity  of  purpose  of  all  the 
people  it  met,  and  with  the  energy  and  vigor  in  evidence  on  all  sides. 
We  feel  that  it  is  a  distinct  privilege  for  the  University  of  Illinois 
to  cooperate  in  this  significant  venture.   If  we  were  to  list  categori- 
cally those  things  which  it  appears  to  us  would  most  strengthen  the 
agricultural  research  and  educational  pattern  in  India,  we  would  say: 

1.  Better  coordination  of  research  programs  and  planning  of  research 
centers. 

2.  Integration  of  research  and  teaching  in  colleges  of  agriculture, 
and  inclusion  of  animal  husbandry  as  a  department. 

3.  More  emphasis  on  public  information  and  extension  by  all  research 
and  teaching  agencies. 

4.  Greater  freedom  of  instructors  to  plan  their  courses,  and  less 
emphasis  on  set  syllabi  and  examinations. 

5.  More  intermediate  agricultural  education  of  the  vocational  agri- 
culture type  found  in  American  high  schools. 

Cooperating  Institutions   in  India 

Eight  colleges  of  agriculture  and  three  veterinary  colleges  in  Region  I  were 
involved  in  the  early  program: 

Uttar  Pradesh 

Allahabad  Agricultural  Institute,  Allahabad 

Balwant  Rajput  College,  Agra-Bichpuri 

College  of  Agriculture,  Nanaras  Hindu  University,  Varanasi 

Government  Agricultural  College,  Kanpur 

U.P.  College  of  Veterinary  Science  and  Animal  Husbandary,  Mathura 


118 


Madhya  Pradesh 

M.P.  College  of  Agriculture  and  Research  Institute,  Gwalior 

M.P.  College  of  Agriculture,  Jabalpur 

M.P.  Veterinary  College,  Jabalpur 

M.P.  College  of  Veterinary  Science  and  Animal  Husbandry,  Mhow 

Government  Agricultural  College,  Rewa 

Rafi  Ahmed  Kidwai  Agricultural  Institute,  Sehore 

The  Agricultural    Universities 

In  1959,  the  University  of  Illinois  was  asked  to  assist  in  working  out  the  de- 
tails for  establishing  an  agricultural  university  in  Uttar  Pradesh,  in  line  with 
the  basic  proposals  made  by  the  Indian  University  Education  Commission  and  the  first 
Joint  Indo-American  Team  in  Agricultural  Research  and  Education.   A  new  contract  was 
drawn  up,  and  the  previous  regional  contract  was  gradually  phased  out.   A  completely 
new  university  was  established  on  the  16,000-acre  Tarai  State  Farm  at  Pantnagar, 
District  Nainital,  in  northern  Uttar  Pradesh.   It  was  known  as  the  Uttar  Pradesh 
Agricultural  University  (UPAU)  until  1972,  when  the  name  was  changed  to  Govind  Bal- 
labh  Pant  University  of  Agriculture  and  Technology  (PUAT) . 

Four  years  earlier,  H.W.  Hannah,  the  first  Chief  of  Party  under  the  regional 
contract,  had  been  given  the  specific  assignment  to  draw  up  a  blueprint  for  a  rural 
university1  in  Uttar  Pradesh.   This  blueprint  established  the  general  pattern  for 
the  new  university,  but  there  was  still  much  work  to  be  done  before  actual  construc- 
tion could  start.   It  was  two  years  before  the  Uttar  Pradesh  Agricultural  University 
Act  was  passed  by  the  U.P.  legislative  assembly  and  the  Tarai  State  Farm  definitely 
established  as  the  site. 

In  that  year,  1958,  the  U.P.  government  selected  three  men  to  go  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois  to  get  detailed  information  on  certain  problems  involved  in  the 
development  of  the  new  institution.  They  were  K.A.P.  Stevenson,  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture, Lucknow,  to  study  administration  in  American  land-grant  universities;  Y.R. 
Mehta,  horticulturist  in  charge,  Government  Vegetable  Research  Station,  Kanpur,  to 
study  the  organization  of  courses  and  curricula;  and  M.S.  Bisht,  chief  engineer,  P. 
W.D.,  Lucknow,  to  study  building  design  and  other  architectural  and  technical  details. 
The  report  prepared  on  their  return  paralleled  in  many  ways  the  "Blueprint"  prepar- 
ed by  Dean  Hannah,  and  was  published  by  the  U.P.  government  as  "A  New  Univcrsity--the 
U.P.  Agricultural  University." 

Detailed  plans  and  a  budget  were  prepared  in  1959  by  a  "Development  Advisory 
Committee"  which  functioned  as  an  interim  board  of  management.   Plans  included  such 
things  as  organizational  structure,  handling  of  contracts,  staffing  pattern,  campus 
development,  selection  of  staff,  development  of  curricula,  establishing  salary 
scales,  and  purchase  of  equipment. 

K.A.P.  Stevenson  was  named  as  the  first  vice-chancellor  for  a  four-year  term, 
and  the  university  opened  in  July,  1960.   It  was  the  first  land-grant  type  university 
established  in  India,  and  it  served  as  a  pioneer  in  the  introduction  of  integrated 
teaching,  research,  and  extension  activities  as  well  as  a  model  for  other  agricultural 

Blueprint  for  a  Rural  University  in  India.   H.W.  Hannah.   Published  by  the  Indian 
Council  of  Agricultural  Research,  New  Delhi,  in  1956.   56  pages.   Also  a  mimeo- 
graphed copy  containing  certain  suggested  revisions,  dated  September,  1956.   50 
pages. 


119 


universities  established   in  recent  years.   It   includes  colleges  of  agriculture, 
basic  science  and  humanities,  veterinary  science,  technology,  and  home  science, 
which  was  established  in  July,  1971. 

Through  research  activities  on  the  university's  experiment  station  and  exten- 
sive university  farms,  new  varieties  of  the  so-called  miracle  wheats  have  been  de- 
veloped which  promise  to  make  the  Tarai  region  in  which  PUAT  is  located  the  wheat 
seedbed  of  India. 

An  India-wide  coordinated  soybean  research  project  is  under  way,  as  are  inter- 
disciplinary programs  of  teaching,  research,  and  extension  in  water  technology  and 
food  technology,  4-H  activities,  and  further  projects  in  more  than  a  hundred  areas. 

The  first  class  in  agriculture  was  graduated  in  1964,  the  first  in  veteri- 
nary science  in  1965,  and  the  first  in  agricultural  engineering  in  1967.   Graduates 
have  experienced  little  difficulty  in  finding  employment  either  in  industry  or  in 
government  service. 

It  was  Convocation  Day  at  the  Indian  Agricultural  Research  Institute  on 
the  outskirts  of  New  Delhi.   The  big  tent  of  green,  yellow,  and  red  was 
brilliant  in  the  sun,  as  the  academic  procession  entered—first  the  fac- 
ulty in  colorful  caps  and  gowns,  then  the  138  graduate  students  who  were 
to  receive  degrees. 

It  was  a  proud  moment  for  Mr.  P.  Baskaran,  a  graduate  student  in  entomol- 
ogy, as  he  shook  the  hand  of  Dr.  M.S.  Swammathan,  director  of  IARI,  and 
heard  himself  declared  a  Master  of  Science.   And  it  was  likewise  a  proud 
moment  for  the  Institute,  because  Mr.  Baskaran' s  degree  was  the  1,000th 
advanced  degree  awarded  by  the  IARI  Graduate  School  in  its  11-year  his- 
tory. 

Last  March  804  other  graduate  students  at  IARI  and  the  10  state  agricul- 
tural universities  of  India  received  M.S.  and  Ph.D.  degrees,  while  7,300 
undergraduates  received  B.S.  degrees  in  the  various  disciplines  of  the 
agricultural  sciences.   By  the  end  of  the  Fourth  Five-Year  Plan,  in  1974, 
it  is  expected  that  the  agricultural  universities  will  be  graduating  25, 
000  students  per  year--the  new  agricultural  leadership  of  the  country. 
And  this  is  a  nation  where  the  oldest  of  the  state  agricultural  universi- 
ties was  founded  only  nine  years  ago,  and  the  youngest  is  still  in  proc- 
ess of  establishment. 

The  oldest,  Uttar  Pradesh  Agricultural  University  at  Pantnagar,  has  lit- 
erally risen  out  of  swamp  and  timberland  since  1960.   Wild  elephants  still 
occasionally  invade  the  university's  experimental  farm,  and  not  more  than 
three  years  ago  a  farm  hand  met  a  tiger  in  one  of  the  cornfields.   Some 
of  the  other  universities  are  also  brand  new,  with  whole  campuses  of  brick 
buildings  rising  suddenly  where  none  stood  a  half-dozen  years  ago;  some 
are  revamped  older  institutions.   Probably  there  has  never  been  such  a 
mushrooming  of  new  agricultural  universities  in  a  comparable  time  anywhere 
in  the  world. 1 


1 


A  Partnership  to  Improve  Food  Production  in  India.   By  Carroll  P.  Streeter. 
1969.  137  pp.  The  Rockefeller  Foundation. 


120 


Development  of  the  Jawaharlal  Nehru  Agricultural  University  at  Jabalpur,  M.P., 
followed  a  different  pattern.   Instead  of  building  an  entire  new  campus,  the  six 
colleges  of  agriculture  and  the  two  veterinary  colleges  in  Madhya  Pradesh  were  made 
constituent  colleges  of  the  new  university,  with  transfer  of  physical  facilities 
and  staff  to  JNAU  on  December  1,  1964.   By  that  time  the  objectives  of  the  regional 
program  begun  in  1955  had  been  nearly  achieved,  and  a  new  contract  provided  for  aid 
in  developing  the  central  university  at  Jabalpur.   Enabling  legislation  provided 
for  the  university  to  have  exclusive  responsibility  for  undergraduate  and  graduate 
teaching  and  for  research.   Administrative  headquarters  were  established  in  facili- 
ties on  the  campus  of  the  M.P.  College  of  Agriculture.  Chief  administrative  officers 
were: 

J.S.  Patel,  Vice-Chancellor 
R.L.  Gupta,  Dean  of  Agriculture 
R.L.  Kaushal,  Dean  of  Veterinary  Science 

B.P.  Tiwari,  Director  of  Research 
S.L.  Vishnoi,  Director  of  Extension 
T.C.R.  Menon,  Registrar  and  Comptroller 

Specifically,  the  University  of  Illinois  was  asked  to  assist  the  state  of  Mad- 
hya Pradesh  and  the  J.  Nehru  Agricultural  University  "in  developing  policies,  plans, 
and  programs,  and  advise  on  the  organization,  administration,  and  operation  of  the 
university;  on  the  development  of  resident  instruction,  extension,  and  research 
programs;  on  ways  and  means  of  providing  opportunities  for  training  in  modern  agri- 
culture; and  on  the  planning,  construction,  and  maintenance  of  physical  facilities 
and  equipment  of  the  university  and  associated  undertaking." 

In  spite  of  the  handicap  of  wide  geographical  separation--it  is  over  400  miles 
from  Mhow  and  Indore  on  the  west  to  Rewa  and  Raipur  on  the  east--the  university  has 
functioned  well.   It  has  made  significant  strides  in  resolving  academic  problems 
and  implementing  educational  programs  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  people  of 
Madhya  Pradesh.   A  third  faculty,  that  of  Agricultural  Engineering,  was  established 
at  Jabalpur  in  1966.   Teaching  research,  and  extension  functions  have  been  integrat- 
ed.  A  trimester  academic  schedule  has  been  adopted,  and  examinations  are  adminis- 
tered internally.   Staff  salaries  have  been  approved,  and  promotions  have  been  based 
on  merit  rather  than  on  length  of  service. 

Other  Agencies 

This  report  would  not  be  complete  without  some  reference  to  important  contri- 
butions made  by  several  other  agencies. 

Technical  Cooperation  Mission   (TCM)    (now  USAID) 3    New  Delhi.      Cooperating  with 
each  of  the  American  university  contract  groups  in  India  is  the  USAID  Mission, 
under  the  United  States  embassy  in  New  Delhi.   Frank  W.  Parker,  long-time  chief 
agriculturist  for  the  mission,  first  went  to  India  in  1953,  and  continued  in  that 
capacity  until  1959.   He  maintained  contact  with  high-level  Indian  government  offi- 
cials, particularly  in  the  Ministry  of  Food  and  Agriculture,  and  was  always  availa- 
ble to  university  team  members  for  consultation.   His  successors  in  that  position 
were  Raymond  H.  Davis,  Ray  G.  Johnson,  O.N.  Liming,  and  Russell  0.  Olsen. 


121 


In  September,  1971,  the  University  of  Illinois  entered  into  a  contract  with 
USAID  to  provide  an  individual  to  serve  as  Chief  of  the  Agricultural  Universities 
Development  Division  in  the  Mission.   R.R.  Renne  served  in  that  capacity,  with  sig- 
nificant responsibilities  for  assisting  the  Government  of  India  in  the  planning, 
programming,  and  evaluation  of  the  program.   He  also  aided  the  Government  of  India 
in  strengthening  education,  extension,  and  research  systems  at  the  central  govern- 
ment and  state  levels. 

The  Ford  Foundation.    The  first  grant  made  by  the  Ford  Foundation  in  its  Over- 
seas Development  Program,  later  expanded  to  more  than  75  countries,  was  made  to 
the  Ministry  of  Food  and  Agriculture,  Government  of  India,  in  December,  1951.   It 
helped  the  Ministry  measure  villagers'  response  to  a  joint  Center  and  state  govern- 
ment village  improvement  program,  a  pilot  project  which  blossomed  into  India's  Na- 
tional Community  Development  Program  involving  all  of  the  nation's  more  than  500, 
000  villages. 

The  Foundation  has  assisted  agricultural  development  mainly  through  the  Inten- 
sive Agricultural  Districts  Program,  which  aims  to  improve  agricultural  efficiency 
through  concentration  of  effort  in  selected  districts  and  the  use  of  a  package  of 
technological  practices  and  development  services.   The  program  has  been  instrumental 
in  increasing  India's  food  production. 

Grants  have  also  been  made  to  cooperating  American  universities  in  furtherance 
of  specific  projects,  and  to  several  of  the  Indian  agricultural  universities.   One 
which  involved  the  University  of  Illinois  was  made  to  the  U.P.  Agricultural  Univer- 
sity to  assist  in  the  development  of  a  strong  department  of  agricultural  economics 
to  deal  with  problems  arising  out  of  the  transition  from  traditional  to  modern 
agricultural  practices. 

The  Rockefeller  Foundation.      In  April,  1956,  The  Government  of  India  and  the 
Rockefeller  Foundation  entered  into  a  formal  agreement  to  cooperate  in  two  specific 
activities:   the  development  of  a  modern  postgraduate  school  at  the  Indian  Agricul- 
tural Research  Institute,  and  the  improvement  of  maize,  sorghum,  and  millet  produc- 
tion.  The  agreement  was  later  broadened  to  include  work  on  other  crops,  but  it  is 
still  the  charter  for  the  Foundation's  assistance  to  India. 

The  following  January,  Ralph  W.  Cummings  arrived  in  India  as  director  of  the 
Foundation's  Indian  Agricultural  Program,  with  particular  responsibility  for  helping 
with  the  IARI  postgraduate  school.   Although  the  IARI  had  been  in  effect  function- 
ing as  a  college  of  agriculture  for  about  ten  years,  it  did  not  have  university 
status  and  could  award  its  graduates  only  an  "Associateship,"  roughly  equivalent 
to  a  Master  of  Science  degree.   The  Indian  administrators  asked  Dr.  Cummings  to 
help  them  draw  up  plans  for  IARI  which  would  make  it  "the  equal  of  any  postgraduate 
agricultural  institution  in  the  world  in  due  course  of  time."  The  first  150  students 
were  admitted  for  advanced  degree  work  in  the  fall  of  1958,  and  the  graduate  school 
was  under  way.   It  has  been  an  outstanding  success. 

When  the  Government  of  India  in  1962  set  up  an  Agricultural  University  Commit- 
tee, with  responsibility  for  establishing  some  national  guidelines,  Dr.  Cummings 
was  named  as  its  chairman.   It  soon  became  known  as  the  Cummings  committee  and,  be- 
cause of  its  official  nature  and  the  stature  of  its  members,  it  was  most  effective 
as  an  advisory  group  in  those  states  which  passed  enabling  legislation  for  the 
establishment  of  agricultural  universities  after  1960. 


122 


Success  of  the  second  phase  of  the  original  agreement--crop  improvcment--has 
been  in  some  ways  even  more  remarkable.   It  has  required  the  combined  efforts  of 
state  and  Center  government  officials,  Indian  plant  breeders,  some  foreign  advisors, 
agronomists  on  the  Rockefeller  staff,  extension  agents  from  the  agricultural  univer- 
sities, and  Indian  farmers  willing  to  try  new  varieties,  and  in  some  cases  new  crops, 
along  with  new  cultural  practices.   The  result  has  been  fantastic  increases  in 
crop  yields,  up  to  ten-fold  in  some  instances,  so  that  India  has  become  nearly  self- 
sufficient  in  several  important  food  grains. 

University  of  Illinois  Staff  Who  Served   in  India 

During  the  period  of  formal  contract  arrangements,  more  than  sixty  persons 
from  the  College  of  Agriculture,  a  few  from  other  colleges  in  the  university,  and 
several  recruited  from  other  institutions,  have  served  in  India.   Most  assignments 
have  been  for  two  years,  and  a  few  individuals  have  returned  for  a  second  or 
third  assignment.   Others  have  gone  for  periods  of  one  to  six  months  on  special 
assignments. 

In  addition  to  those  persons  stationed  at  specific  institutions,  several  ad- 
ministrators have  made  official  trips  as  "executive  visitors"  under  the  contract 
provisions.   These  trips  involved  travel  to  the  various  places  in  north-central 
India  where  staff  members  were  located  to  review  the  work  in  progress  and  to  become 
familiar  with  some  of  the  local  problems. 

The  following  list,  grouped  by  the  Indian  institutions  to  which  assigned,  in- 
cludes the  names  of  persons  who  have  served  through  1973  on  the  Illinois  teams  in 
India,  their  field  of  specialization  or  other  responsibility,  and  the  period  of 
service  in  India. 

Allahabad  Agricultural  Institute,  Allahabad,  U.P. 

M.H.  Alexander,  Dairy  Science  (Chief  of  Party),  October,  1952,  to  August,  1954 

Jeannette  B.  Dean,  Home  Economics,  November,  1954,  to  October,  1956 

George  H.  Dungan,  Agronomy  (Chief  of  Party),  July,  1953,  to  September,  1955 

Florence  A.  Kimmelshue,  Home  Economics,  January,  1953,  to  January,  1955 

T.  Wilson  Longmore,  Rural  Sociology,  October,  1954,  to  January,  1956 

Alex  Reed  (Southern  Illinois  University),  Animal  Science  (Chief  of  Party),  August, 
1954,  to  June,  1956 

Frank  H.  Shuman,  Agricultural  Extension,  January,  1953,  to  May,  1955 

Region  I,  North-Central  India 

G.H.  Blackman  (University  of  Florida),  Horticulture.  Institute  of  Plant  Industry, 
Indore,  M.P.,  February,  1957,  to  February,  1959 

W.D.  Buddemeier,  Agricultural  Economics  (Chief  of  Party).   Government  Agricultural 
College,  Kanpur,  U.P.,  September,  1959,  to  August,  1963 


123 


L.F..  Card,  Animal  Science  (Chief  of  Party).  U.P.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Fucknow, 
U.P.,  November,  1957,  to  November,  1959 

W.J.  Foremen   (University  of  Georgia),  Agriculture  Fxonomics.   Allahabad  Agricul- 
tural Institute,  Allahabad,  U.P.,  July,  1956,  to  May,  1958 

R.J.  Garber  (Pennsylvania  State  University),  Plant  Breeding.  M.P.   College  of  Agri- 
culture and  Research  Institute,  Gwalior,  M.P.,  February,  1957,  to  February, 1959 

H.W.  Hannah,  Administration  (Chief  of  Party).   Tarai  State  Farm,  Pant  Nagar,  U.P., 
October,  1955,  to  August,  1957 

E.A.  Keyes  (Montana  State  University),  Dairy  Science.  Rafi  Ahmed  Kidwai  Agricul- 
tural College,  Sehore,  M.P.,  January,  1958,  to  January,  1960 

J.C.  Laverty,  Soils.  Balwant  Rajput  College,  Agra-Bichpuri,  U.P.  December,  1962,  to 
June,  1963 

D.E.  Lindstrom,  Rural  Sociology.   M.P.  College  of  Agriculture,  Jabalpur,  M.P.,  Sep- 
tember, 1960,  to  September,  1962 

J.W.  Matthews,  Agricultural  Engineering.  Balwant  Rajput  College,  Agra-Bichpuri,  U. 
P.,  February,  1960,  to  August,  1961 

E.E.  Ormiston,  Dairy  Science  (Acting  Chief  of  Party).   Banaras  Hindu  University, 
Varanasi,  U.P.,  February,  1961,  to  July,  1963 

W.R.  Schoonover  (University  of  California),  Soil  Salinity  (Acting  Chief  of  Party). 
Balwant  Rajput  College,  Agra-Bichpuri,  U.P.,  February,  1957,  to  July,  1961 

F.H.  Shuman,  Agricultural  Extension.   M.P.  College  of  Agriculture,  Jabalpur,  M.P., 
November,  1962,  to  November  1964 

S.K.  Sinha  (Jensen-Salsbury  Laboratories,  Kansas  City),  Veterinary  Medicine.  M.P. 
College  of  Veterinary  Science  and  Animal  Husbandry,  Mhow,  M.P.,  September,  1960 
to  June,  1961 

W.H.  Tammeus  (Southern  Illinois  University),  Agricultural  Extension.   Allahabad 
Agricultural  Institute,  Allahabad,  U.P.,  March,  1956,  to  February,  1958 

G.I.  Wallace,  Microbiology,  Indian  Veterinary  Research  Institute,  Mukteshwar,  U. 
P.,  May  through  July,  1957 

Uttar  Pradesh  Agricultural  University  (now  Govind  Ballabh  Pant  University  of  Agri- 
culture and  Technology),  Pantnagar,  U.P. 

Edwin  Bay,  Agricultural  Extension,  May,  1965  to  April,  1967 

P.D.  Beamer,  Veterinary  Medicine,  June,  1960,  to  August,  1964 

C.S.  Bittncr  (Pennsylvania  State  University),  Horticulture,  July,  1970,  to  July, 
1972 


124 


H.S.  Bryan,  Veterinary  Science,  May  through  August,  1969 

J.B.  Claar,  Agricultural  Extension,  January  through  February,  1967 

J.L.  Dale  (University  of  Arkansas),  Plant  Pathology,  July  through  September,  1967 

Forster  Davidson  (Urbana  Laboratories),  Soybean  Inoculum,  October,  1971,  to  Novem- 
ber, 1973 

D.F.  Dayton,  Horticulture,  September  through  October,  1966 

Jeannette  B.  Dean,  Home  Science  Extension,  October,  1969,  to  October,  1971 

C.C.  Delong,  Administration,  March  through  May,  1960 

R.D.  DeMoss,  Microbiology,  June  through  November  1965 

T.R.  Everett  (Ford  Foundation),  Entomology,  November,  1971,  to  December,  1973 

T.J.  Faggetti,  Agricultural  Extension,  January,  1967,  to  March,  1969 

J.B.  Fehrenbacher,  Pedology,  September  through  December,  1965 

W.D.  Goeke  (Illinois  Breeding  Cooperative),  Artificial  Insemination,  March  through 
May,  1969 

J.R.  Gingrich  (USAID/Vietnam) ,  Soil  Science,  September,  1968,  to  January,  1973 

O.F.  Glissendorf,  Communications,  January  through  March,  1971 

T.S.  Hamilton,  Administration,  January  through  May,  1960 

H.W.  Hannah,  Chief  of  Party,  September,  1958,  to  December,  1959 

S.W.  Hinners  (Southern  Illinois  University),  Poultry,  January  through  June,  1971 

Richard  Hurelbrink,  Pedology,  August,  1968,  to  January,  1969 

Theodore  Hymowitz,  Agronomy,  May  through  October,  1967 

R.C.  Hay,  Agricultural  Engineering,  December,  1961  to  June,  1964;  October,  1969, 
to  April,  1970 

R.W.  Jugenheimer,  Research  Administration,  April,  1968,  to  June,  1970 

W.V.  Lambert  (University  of  Nebraska),  Chief  of  Party,  June,  1960, to  January,  1966 

S.T.  Lanford,  Campus  Planning,  June  through  September,  1969 

A.L.  Lang,  Soils,  September  through  December,  1966 

J.L.  Leach,  Mechanical  Engineering,  June  through  August,  1969 


125 


E.R.  Long,  Research,  November,  ] 964  to  October,  1966 

H.J.  Miller  (Kansas  State  University),  Campus  Planning,  .July,  1971,  to  August,  1972 

R.M.  Matsuura  (USAID/India) ,  Agronomy,  May,  1968,  to  October,  1971 

M.D.  McGlamery,  Weed  Control,  July  through  September,  1967 

D.J.  Minehart  (USAID/India),  Land  and  Water  Use,  January,  1965,  to  March,  1969 

A.I.  Nelson,  Food  Technology,  October  through  December,  1969;   Food  Engineering, 
September,  1971,  to  October,  1973 

Charles  Norman  (University  of  West  Virginia),  Artificial  Insemination,  May  through 
August,  1969 

E.E.  Ormiston,  Dairy  Science,  June,  1968,  to  August,  1971 

F.E.  Price  (Oregon  State  University),  Chief  of  Party,  October,  1965,  to  November, 
1967 

Julius  Price  (Silver  Engineering  Co.,  Denver,  Colorado),  Sugar  Beet  Processing, 
March  through  May,  1969 

B.W.  Ray,  Pedology,  September  through  December,  1965 

F.E.  Reeder  (Funk  Brothers  Seed  Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois),  Seed  Processing, 
November,  1970,  to  February,  1971 

E.H.  Regnier,  Student  Training,  July,  1963,  to  July,  1965 

R.R.  Renne  (U.S.  Department  of  Interior),  Chief  of  Party,  August,  1969,  to  August, 
1971 

E.D.  Rodda  (University  of  California,  Davis),  Agricultural  Engineering,  July,  1968, 
to  August,  1970 

M.B.  Russell,  Water  Technology,  October,  1972,  to  June,  1973 

E.C.  Seyler,  Admissions  and  Student  Records,  March  through  July,  1960 

W.O.  Scott,  Seed  Certification,  January  through  April,  1972 

R.A.  Sikora,  Plant  Pathology,  October,  1970,  to  October,  1971 

D.A.  Smith  (Iowa  State  University),  Veterinary  Medicine,  July,  1964,  to  July,  1966 

Janice  M.  Smith,  Home  Science,  February  through  March,  1966 

L.J.  Stannard,  Entomology,  June  through  October,  1968 

Mary  S.  Svetez,  (Applegate) ,  Office  Procedures,  March  through  July,  1960 


126 


J.H.  Swing,  Campus  Planning,  June  through  August,  1967 

A.E.  Thompson,  Research,  February  through  April,  1967;  June,  1967,  to  September, 
1969 

M.D.  Thorne,  Research  Administration,  September,  1970,  to  August,  1971;  Chief  of 
Party,  September,  1971,  to  October,  1972 

R.J.  Webb,  Farm  Management  November,  1959,  to  November,  1961;  November,  1963,  to 
June,  1964;  Dairy  Science,  August,  1966,  to  February,  1967 

John  Woods  (University  of  Missouri),  Communications,  April  through  July,  1970 

Jawaharlal  Nehru  Agricultural  University,  Jabalpur,  M.P. 
J.D.  Alexander,  Pedology,  March  through  April,  1970 

J.H.  Behrens,  Communications,  July,  1968,  to  September,  1971 

B.L.  Brooks  (Washington  State  University),  Agricultural  Economics,  July,  1967,  to 
June,  1969 

H.S.  Bryan  (Upjohn  Company,  Kalamazoo,  Michigan),  Acting  Chief  of  Party,  April,  1966, 
to  April,  1968;  Veterinary  Medicine,  December,  1968,  to  April,  1969 

W.D.  Buddemeier,  Chief  of  Party,  November,  1964,  to  December,  1967;  Farm  Management, 
December,  1969,  to  March,  1970 

J.H.  Byers,  Animal  Science,  October,  1968,  to  May,  1972 

J.B.  Claar,  Agricultural  Extension,  December,  1966,  to  January,  1967;   August  through 
October,  1969 

D.E.  Erickson,  Production  Economics,  September  through  December,  1968 

C.H.  Farnham,  Research  Farms,  April,  1966,  to  August,  1968 

J.B.  Fehrenbacher,  Pedology,  March  through  April,  1970 

K.E.  Gardner,  Administration,  July  through  December,  1967 

H.G.  Halcrow,  Agricultural  Economics,  October  through  November,  1967 

J.R.  Harlan,  Research,  November,  1966,  to  February,  1967 

C.N.  Hittle,  Seed  Processing,  September  through  December,  1968;  Agronomy,  September, 
1969,  to  August,  1971 

J. A.  Jackobs,  Agronomy,  February  through  May,  1966 

F.B.  Lanham,  Research,  November,  1965,  to  February,  1966 

W.H.  Luckman,  Research,  May  through  August,  1967;  Entomology,  August  through  Octo- 
ber, 1970 


127 


M.D.  McGlamery,  Weed  Control,  June  through  September,  1968 

W.A.  Meyer,  Plant  Pathology  Graduate  Student,  January,  1971,  to  January,  1972 

R.T.  Milner,  Food  Technology,  September  through  December,  1967 

D.J.  Minehart,  Research  Farms,  May,  1969,  to  April,  1972 

0.0.  Mowery,  Agricultural  Extension,  August,  1967,  to  August,  1969 

R.O.  Nesheim,  Animal  Science,  February  through  March,  1966 

E.F.  Olver,  Agricultural  Engineering  (Chief  of  Party),   May,  1967,  to  July,  1969 

J.W.  Pendleton,  Plant  Physiology,  September  through  December,  1970 

M.B.  Russell,  Research,  September  through  December,  1965;  February  through  May, 
1967;  Chief  of  Party,  July,  1969,  to  August,  1971 

G.W.  Salisbury,  Dairy  Science,  November  through  December,  1965 

G.C.  Shove,  Participant  Adviser,  August  through  September,  1971 

CD.  Smith,  Registrar,  January  through  April,  1966 

G.F.  Sons,  Extension  Administration,  February  through  April,  1970 

L.J.  Stannard,  Entomology,  January  through  February,  1970 

J.H.  Swing,  Campus  Planning,  February  through  August,  1966;  June  through  September, 
1969 

D.P.  Taylor,  Plant  Pathology,  June  through  August,  1968 

M.D.  Thorne,  Research,  September  through  December,  1966 

M.K.  von  Oppen,  Agricultural  Economics,  September,  1970,  to  September,  1971 

H.L.  Wakeland,  Undergraduate  Teaching,  January  through  February,  1971 

W.H.  Walker,  Ground  Water  Hydrology,  January  through  February,  1969;  January  through 
February,  1970 

S.W.  Williams,  Agricultural  Economics,  July,  1969,  to  August,  1971 

T.H.  Wilson,  Entomology  (MUCIA) ,  September,  1969,  to  September,  1970 


128 


Participant   Training  at   Illinois 

In  AID  contract  terminology,  Indian  staff  members  who  come  to  the  United  States 
for  special  training  are  called  participants.   The  first  such  individual  to  come  to 
the  University  of  Illinois  under  the  original  Allahabad  contract  arrived  in  Urbana 
in  September,  1952,  and  the  last  one  to  come  under  the  regional  contract  arrived  in 
January,  1964.   There  were  about  eight  from  each  of  the  cooperating  colleges  plus 
a  few  from  research  stations  and  from  the  state  governments  to  make  a  total  of  104. 
Of  these,  58  obtained  a  master's  degree  and  4  stayed  long  enough  to  complete  the 
requirements  for  a  doctorate.   Of  the  remaining  42,  who  came  for  nondegree  programs, 
most  already  had  either  an  M.S.  or  a  Ph.D  before  coming. 

Under  the  two  agricultural  university  contracts,  136  participants  came  to  Il- 
linois through  1972,  of  whom  85  were  in  advanced-degree  programs.   This  means  that 
about  20  percent  of  the  staff  members  at  the  Indian  institutions  in  the  program 
have  come  to  the  United  States  for  additional  training,  enough  to  provide  a  strong 
tie  between  their  home  institutions  and  the  University  of  Illinois. 

The  participant  program  proved  to  one  of  the  most  significant  parts  of  the 
entire  contract  arrangement. 


129 


Illinois  in  Africa 

Njala   University  College,    Njala,    Sierra   Leone 

A  team  from  Sierra  Leone,  representing  the  Ministries  ot  Natural  Resources, 
Education,  and  Development,  and  the  USAID  Mission,  came  to  the  United  States  in 
July-August,  1962,  and  visited  five  colleges  of  agriculture,  including  the  one  at 
the  University  of  Illinois.   Following  that  visit,  a  survey  team  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois  went  to  Sierra  Leone  in  February-March,  1963,  and  recommended  that 
an  agricultural  experiment  station  and  a  teacher  training  facility  located  at  Njala, 
about  120  miles  from  the  coast,  be  combined  as  the  nucleus  for  a  college.   The  re- 
port was  accepted  by  the  Sierra  Leone  government,  and  Njala  University  College  was 
authorized,  with  S.T.  Matturi  as  Principal,  effective  June  1,  1963. 

In  October  of  that  year,  Karl  E.  Gardner  as  Chief  of  Party  and  M.  Ray  Karnes 
as  Education  Adviser  returned  to  Sierra  Leone  to  help  get  the  program  under  way. 
Instruction  began  one  year  later  with  101  students  enrolled.   In  the  meantime,  the 
West  African  institute  for  Oil  Palm  Research  at  Njala  and  the  Rice  Research  Station 
at  Rokpura  had  been  incorporated  into  the  college  structure. 

In  early  1967  the  college  at  Njala  and  Fourah  Bay  College  at  Freetown  became  con- 
stituent colleges  comprising  the  newly  established  University  of  Sierra  Leone.   In 
the  brief  period  of  its  existence,  NUC  has  demonstrated  that  the  land-grant  college 
approach  is  effective  for  agricultural  and  educational  development  in  Sierra  Leone. 

Through  1972  the  following  persons  served  at  Njala  under  the  Illinois/AID  contract, 
for  the  periods  indicated: 

A.H.  Beavers,  Soils,  April  through  June,  1967 

J.M.  Barrow  (Atkins,  Barrow  £  Graham,  Inc.,  Urbana) ,  Campus  Planning,  March  through 
July,  1964 

W.D.  Boston  (OES) ,  Animal  Science,  August,  1969,  to  January,  1973 

E.A.  Brams  (University  of  Florida),  Soils,  August,  1967,  to  March,  1970 

Hazel  S.  Brooks,  Administrative  Assistant,  September,  1964,  to  November,  1966 

R.K.  Brown,  Science  and  Education,  February,  1966,  to  January,  1968;   January 
through  February,  1970 

J.E.  Crawford  (Stanford  University),  Adviser  on  Student  Affairs,  August,  1966,  to 
August,  1968 

H.M.  Dyasi  (Njala  University  College),  Teacher  and  Science  Education,  September, 
1968,  to  October,  1970 

E.J.  Ehler  (USDA) ,  Administrative  Secretary,  August,  1966,  to  November,  1969 

K.E.  Fiscus,  Education,  June,  1965,  to  June,  1967 

K.E.  Gardner,  Adviser  to  Principal  and  Chief  of  Party,  September,  1963,  to  March, 
1964 


130 


W.D.  Green,  Accounts  and  Records,  January  through  June,  1964;  October  through  Novem- 
ber, 1964 

J. A.  Hagler  (USAID/Sierra  Leone)  Agricultural  Education,  October  through  November, 
1964 

J.R.  Harlan,  Consultant  in  Research,  November  through  December,  1968 

A.G.  Harms,  Agricultural  Economics  and  Farm  Management,  June  through  July,  1970; 
September  through  October,  1972 

W.W.  Hodges  (Pittsburgh  Plate  Glass  Works,  Kokomo,  Indiana),  Agricultural  Shop 
Specialist,  July,  1964,  to  January,  1972 

C.G.  Hurter  (Fort  Hayes  State  University),  Assistant  to  Chief  of  Party,  March,  1969, 
to  March,  1972 

L.L.  Inman  (Near  East  Foundation),  Adviser  in  Crops,  November,  1969,  to  March,  1970 

M.R.  Karnes,  Chief  of  Party,  July,  1967,  to  October,  1970 

G.L.  Karr  (Central  Missouri  State  College),  Agricultural  Economics,  June,  1967,  to 
October,  1970 

Joseph  Kastelie,  Animal  Science,  September,  1964,  to  September,  1966 

F.H.  Klassen,  Teacher  Training,  March,  1964,  to  February,  1966 

Patricia  Klassen,  English  Language,  September,  1964,  to  February,  1966 

T.L.  Kurtz,  Consultant  in  Soil  Science,  March  through  April,  1968 

R.F.  Long,  Consultant  in  Extension  Education,  October,  1970,  to  November,  1972 

K.J.  Mahoney  (Peace  Corps,  Freetown),  Extension  Education,  September,  1968,  to 
August,  1970 

S.W.  Melsted,  Soils,  September,  1965,  to  August,  1967;  October  through  December, 
1971 

V.V.  Myers  (California),  Printing  Consultant,  October,  1966,  to  August,  1967 

A.O.  Njoku,  Agricultural  Economics,  September,  1969,  to  September,  1970 

R.T.  Odell,  Chief  of  Party,  January,  1966,  to  August,  1967;  September,  1970,  to 
August,  1972 

Rena  K.  Roberts  (USAID/Turkey) ,  Home  Economics,  September,  1964,  to  December,  1969 

E.C.  Seyler,  Admissions  and  Student  Records,  September,  1964 

W.N  Thompson,  Chief  of  Party,  March,  1964,  to  March,  1966 


131 


R.W.  Touchberry,  Dairy  Science,  June  through  July,  1965 

E.H.  Tyner,  Consultant,  Rice  Research,  February  through  April,  1969 

W.M.  Walker,  Statistical  Analysis,  April  through  August,  1967 

R.O.  Weibel,  Tropical  Crops,  January,  1966,  to  November,  1968 

V.  I.  West,  Agricultural  Economics,  September,  1971,  to  September,  1973 

D.A.  Wilson,  English  Language,  February,  1966,  to  August,  1967 

H.R.  Wack,  Agricultural  Extension,  September,  1965,  to  August,  1967 

V.  Whittaker,  Research  Assistant,  September,  1969,  to  September,  1970 

N.A.  Worker  (FAO) ,  Dean  of  Agriculture,  September,  1967,  to  December,  1971 

G.S.  Zimmerman  (Flora,  Illinois,  High  School)  Agricultural  Education,  August,  1967, 
to  August,  1971 

111 inois  in  Jordan 

Contract  NESA  64-1  between  the  University  of  Illinois  and  the  U.S.  Agency  for 
International  Development,  covering  the  period  from  January  7,  1964,  to  February 
28,  1966,  was  drawn  to  assist  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  in  Jordan  in  establish- 
ing and  operating  an  agricultural  information  service  in  its  Agricultural  Exten- 
sion Department.   The  primary  functions  of  the  small  Illinois  group  were  to  develop 
and  produce  information  materials  and  to  train  extension  workers  and  other  agri- 
cultural leaders  in  the  effective  use  of  information  methods. 

After  a  detailed  study  of  the  local  situation,  a  proposal  for  developing  the 
agricultural  information  service  was  prepared  and  presented  to  the  appropriate 
Jordanian  offcials  in  March,  1964,  and  later  presented  to  and  approved  by  the 
director  and  deputy  director  of  the  USAID  Mission.   The  services  agreed  upon  were: 

1.  Publish  the  findings  of  the  research  staff  in  simple  and  usable  form  for 
extension  workers,  farmers,  and  schools  teaching  agriculture.   Only  limited  publi- 
cation had  been  done  previously. 

2.  Provide  information  on  agricultural  matters  to  the  Hashemite  Broadcasting 
Service  and  to  Jordanian  newspapers  so  that  it  could  currently  be  made  available 
to  farmers  and  other  interested  persons. 

3.  Make  visual  aids  and  production  services  a  vital  part  of  the  agricultural 
information  service  so  that  leaflets  and  similar  small  publications  could  be  dup- 
licated within  the  section. 

4.  Appoint  a  full-time  coordinator  or  head  of  the  information  section,  who 
would  establish  a  plan  of  work,  counsel  and  advise  the  staff,  and  help  create  a 
favorable  working  environment  for  the  staff. 

5.  Develop  training  schools  at  which  extension  staff  members  could  gain  in- 
formation about  effective  communication  methods. 


132 


These  objectives  were  accomplished  in  varying  degrees  during  the  period  of 
the  contract.   A  staff  of  ten  persons  was  assembled,  and  four  of  the  ten  were  sent 
to  the  United  States  as  participants  for  a  period  of  seven  months.   Additional 
training  for  the  staff  was  provided  by  three  short-term  advisors  from  the  Illinois 
campus  who  advised  on  visual  aids  and  printing  processes;   design  and  layout  for 
publications;   radio  programming;  and  photography.   Throughout  the  two-year  period 
of  the  contract,  one  or  more  advisors  provided  daily  consultation  and  on-the-spot 
assistance  in  all  phases  of  the  information  office  operations. 

Nine  single-subject  publications  of  8  to  24  pages  each  were  edited  by  the  sec- 
tion and  printed  in  Arabic  from  July,  1964,  to  December,  1965.   A  quarterly  maga- 
zine "Agriculture  in  Jordan"  and  a  monthly  newsletter  were  started  in  1965.   A 
file  of  nearly  1,000  usable  photo  negatives  was  developed.   A  15-minute  daily  farm 
radio  program  was  provided  to  and  by  the  Hashemite  Broadcasting  Service  in  Amman.  Ex- 
hibits were  prepared  for  a  tomato  field  day,  the  Baghdad  International  Fair,  and 
the  Jericho  Orange  Festival. 

Perhaps  most  encouraging  of  all  was  recognition  by  the  government  of  Jordan 
that  such  an  information  service  is  needed  in  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  that 
it  can  be  very  helpful  in  promoting  more  and  better-quality  food  production. 

The  following  Illinois  staff  members  served  in  Jordan: 

Harold  D.  Guither,  Chief  of  Party,  January,  1964,  to  February,  1966 
Glen  M.  Broom,  Radio  Services,  June  to  October,  1965 

Victor  R.  Stephen,  Visual  Aids  and  Graphic  Arts,  February  to  June,  1965 
John  L.  Woods,  Photographic  Processing,  October,  1965,  to  February,  1966 

Publications 

Several  publications  developed  under  AID  contracts  and  prepared  wholly  or  in 
part  by  University  of  Illinois  staff  members  have  been  directly  related  to  over- 
seas service  and  programs.   Some  are  summarized  below. 

Manual   on  Aided  Self-Help  Housing 

This  manual,  prepared  by  Professor  Keith  H.  Hinchcliff,  University  of  Illinois, 
was  an  outgrowth  of  a  two-year  period  of  service  in  Indonesia.   Its  purpose  was  to 
aid  in  the  training  of  leaders  in  aided  self-help  housing,  particularly  for  low- 
cost  housing  and  for  use  in  underdeveloped  areas.   It  was  based  on  a  comprehensive 
assembly  of  experiences,  visual  aids,  procedures,  and  subject  material  drawn  from 
Puerto  Rico,  the  Philippines,  and  Indonesia.   It  was  published  by  the  University 
of  Illinois  Press. 

Resource  Book  for  Rural    Universities   in   the  Developing  Countries 

This  book,  prepared  under  Contract  AID/csd-349,  by  Professor  Harold  W.  Hannah 
and  Robert  Caughey,  outlined  the  problems  encountered  and  procedures  to  be  follow- 
ed in  establishing  and  operating  agricultural  colleges  or  universities  in  lesser 
developed  countries.   The  purpose  of  the  book  was  threefold: 

1.  To  express  as  meaningfully  as  possible,  and  in  as  many  instances  as  are 
appropriate,  those  underlying  assumptions  and  principles  which  give  the 
land-grant  institutions  their  vitality. 


133 


2.  To  explain  and  discuss  the  general  structure  which  seems  to  have  best 
promoted  these  underlying  assumptions  and  principles. 

3.  To  provide  a  reservoir  of  detailed  and  factual  information  about  the  in- 
ternal organization  and  functioning  of  such  a  university,  from  which  may 
spring  ideas  and  answers  about  what  to  do  and  what  not  to  do. 

The  book  was  published  by  the  University  of  Illinois  Press. 

Mission  Overseas:      A  Handbook  for  U.S.  Families  in  Developing  Countries 

The  information  in  this  294-page  book  by  Harold  D.  Guither  and  W.N.  Thompson 
of  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Economics  was  based  on  a  survey  of  nearly  600 
university  personnel  and  their  wives  who  lived  in  thirty-nine  developing  countries 
between  1951  and  1966. 

The  primary  emphasis  was  on  the  personal  well-being  of  families  overseas,  in- 
cluding such  details  as:   personal  and  professional  gains  and  losses;  arranging 
care  of  a  home,  furnishing,  and  pets;  what  and  how  to  learn  about  the  country  and 
language;  schooling  for  children  of  different  ages  and  grade  levels;  housing  prob- 
lems, servants;  goods  and  services;  illness;  transportation—in  short,  how  to 
live  and  work  as  foreigners. 

Reading  references  on  specific  countries  were  included. 

The  book  was  published  in  1969  by  the  University  of  Illinois  Press. 

Building  Institutions   to  Serve  Agriculture 

This  250-page  summary  report  of  the  CIC-AID.  Rural  Development  Research 
Project  was  published  in  1968  by  the  Committee  on  Institutional  Cooperation  (CIC) 
Purdue  University,  Lafayette,  Indiana;  it  was  edited  bv  Robert  L.  Clodius  of 
the  University  of  Wisconsin.   It  includes  chapters  on  the  problem,  the  background, 
effects  on  host  institutions,  effects  on  U.S.  universities,  development  of  the  pro- 
ject, operation  of  contract  programs,  basic  factor?  conditioning  success,  and  over- 
all costs  and  accomplishments. 

The  Establishment  of  Agricultural    Universities   in   India:      A   Case  Study  of   the  Role 
of  USAID-U.S .    University   Technical   Assistance 

This  is  one  portion  of  the  final  report  of  the  CIC-AID  Rural  Development  Re- 
search Project,  Contract  No.  AID/  csd-840.   The  report  by  Kathleen  M.  Propp  was 
submitted  in  February,  1968,  to  the  Graduate  College  of  the  University  of  Illinois 
in  partial  fulfillment  of  the  requirements  for  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  in 
Political  Science.   It  was  published  also  as  University  of  Illinois  College  of 
Agriculture  Special  Publication  15  (67  pages) . 

AID-University  Rural   Development   Contracts  1951-1966 

This  95-page  report  by  Kathleen  M.  Propp,  Harold  D.  Guither,  Earl  H.  Regnier, 

and  William  N.  Thompson  was  completed  in  June,  1968.   It  is  one  portion  of  the 

final  report  of  the  CIC-AID  Rural  Development  Research  Project,  Contract  No.  AID/ 
csd-840. 


134 


INTSOY 


Of  the  total  world  production  of  soybeans  (estimated  at  about  43.5  million  metric 
tons  in  1972),  about  75  percent  is  produced  in  North  America  and  17  percent  in 
Mainland  China.   Other  important  producing  areas  include  Brazil,  the  U.S.S.R., 
and  Indonesia.   Virtually  the  entire  North  and  South  American  crop  has  tradition- 
ally been  processed  for  oil,  with  the  residual  meal  used  principally  for  livestock 
feeding.   Some  varieties  have  long  been  used  as  human  food  in  the  Orient,  and 
recent  work  with  many  of  the  newer  commercial  varieties  has  established  the  high 
potential  of  the  soybean  as  a  means  of  alleviating  the  critical  protein-calorie 
deficiencies  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 

About  40  percent  of  the  total  dry-matter  content  of  whole  soybeans  is  protein, 
with  amino-acid  distribution  close  to  that  recommended  by  FAO  for  maximum  protein 
utilization.   Whole  soybeans  are  also  high  in  caloric  value,  containing  about  20 
percent  of  edible  fat. 

Illinois  has  been  the  leading  state  in  soybean  acreage  since  1924,  and  con- 
sequently has  had  a  long-standing  interest  in  production,  harvesting,  marketing, 
processing,  and  use  of  soybeans.   The  College  of  Agricultural  Sciences  of  Puerto 
Rico  at  Mayaguez  has  been  conducting  research  on  food  legumes  for  many  years  and 
recently  on  soybeans.    It  was  therefore  a  natural  development  for  the  two 
colleges  of  agriculture--at  Urbana  and  Mayaguez--to  formalize  a  cooperative  re- 
search and  educational  program  in  1973,  to  be  known  as  INTSOY,  the  International 
Soybean  Program.   Its  director  is  W.N.  Thompson,  at  the  University  of  Illinois. 

The  major  emphasis  of  INTSOY  is  on  exploiting  the  unique  potential  of  soybeans 
as  a  source  of  protein  for  direct  human  consumption.   This  includes  research  on 
the  problems  of  tropical  and  subtropical  environments  as  logical  areas  for  increas- 
ing production;  and  on  nutrition  and  processing  to  expand  the  use  of  soybean  pro- 
tein foods  in  human  diets. 

Financial  support  in  1974  came  primarily  from  the  U.S.  Agency  for  International 
Development,  for  cooperative  work  with  and  through  international  research  centers, 
foundations,  universities,  and  other  agencies.   Soybean  variety  evaluation  trials, 
for  example,  were  being  conducted  in  1973  in  33  different  countries  in  Africa, 
Asia,  Asia  Minor,  and  in  North  Central,  and  South  America. 

Results  of  these  trials  provided  concrete  evidence  that  some  U.S.  soybean 
varieties  are  adapted  and  can  achieve  high  levels  of  production  in  tropical  and 
subtropical  environments.   Promising  results  had  been  obtained  from  several  years' 
production  trials  instituted  in  India  in  1965  in  cooperation  with  G.B.  Pant.  Uni- 
versity of  Agriculture  and  Technology  (Pantnagar)  and  Jawaharlal  Nehru  Krishi 
Vishnia  Vidyalaya  (Jabalpur) .   Trials  in  11  countries  from  1969  to  1972  resulted 
in  general  yield  levels  that  far  exceeded  expectations  at  all  locations  except 
Thailand  and  Indonesia.   Yields  in  excess  of  3,000  kilograms  per  hectare  (45 
bushels  per  acre)  were  obtained  at  several  locations.   Careful  management  is,  how- 
evei   essential  if  top  production  is  to  be  obtained  with  most  "modern"  soybean 
varieties.   This  includes  adequate  fertility,  effective  inoculation,  high  population 
per  hectare,  and  thorough  weed  control. 


135 


Assuming  that  soybean  production  is  found  to  be  economically  feasible  in  a 
given  country,  there  remains  the  important  problem  of  processing  the  beans  into 
acceptable  forms  of  human  food.   Examples  of  what  is  being  done  in  this  area 
include: 

1.  Development  of  a  dry,  stable  dal  for  India  and  other  countries.   Experi- 
ments carried  out  in  India  indicated  that  a  suitable  dal  could  be  produced  either 
in  a  1 ,000-kilograms-per-day  processing  plant  or  at  the  village  level  for  about 
two  rupees  (27  cents  U.S.)  per  kilogram. 

2.  Direct  preparation  of  soybeans  as  human  food,  in  either  cooked  or  roasted 
form. 

3.  Manufacture  of  whole-soybean  pouder  by  roller  (drum)  drying,  to  be  used 
as  a  protein  supplement  in  wheat,  corn,  or  rice  flours. 

4.  Manufacture  of  soybean-corn  (1:1)  powder  by  roller  drying,  to  be  used  as 
a  protein  supplement  in  recipes  for  tortillas  or  breakfast  foods. 

5.  Manufacture  of  soybean-rice  (1:1)  powder  by  roller  drying,  to  be  used  in 
many  recipes  that  normally  contain  rice. 

6.  Manufacture  of  soybean-banana  (1:1)  powder  by  roller  drying,  intended  pri- 
marily as  a  weaning  food,  but  also  for  use  as  an  ingredient  in  such  baked  foods 

as  cookies  and  cakes. 

With  increasingly  intensive  agriculture  and  crowding  of  plants  by  narrower 
row  spacing,  not  to  mention  a  limited  genetic  base,  plant  diseases  become  ever 
more  important.   This  is  reflected  in  the  growth  of  the  soybean  pathology  staff 
at  the  University  of  Illinois,  with  intensive  studies  under  way  on  root,  stem,  and 
leaf  diseases,  as  well  as  on  seedborne  and  seedling  diseases,  and  soybean  viruses. 

Puerto  Rico  is  an  excellent  tropical  laboratory  for  conducting  studies  on 
causes,  characteristics,  and  control  of  plant  diseases  and  prevalent  insects,  as 
well  as  on  improved  cultural  practices  and  weed  control.   The  island  is  unique  in 
that  it  offers  a  rich  variation  of  ecological  conditions  within  short  distances. 
Areas  with  annual  rainfall  from  more  than  150  to  less  than  30  inches  are  located 
only  a  few  miles  apart  and  are  readily  accesible.   Nearly  all  soil  orders  are  al- 
so found  on  the  island.   Puerto  Rico  is  easily  accessible  from  both  the  United 
States  and  Latin  America.   Its  bilingual,  bicultural  population,  attractive  liv- 
ing conditions,  abundant  housing,  pleasant  climate,  good  school  system,  and  health 
facilities,  as  well  as  its  numerous  cultural  and  recreational  advantages,  make 
it  an  attractive  site  for  the  tropical  component  of  the  International  Soybean 
Resource  Base.   An  additional  primary  advantage  is  its  political  and  social  stabi- 
lity. 


136 


LEPTOSPIROSIS 


Leptospirosis  in  cattle  and  swine  is  a  disease  caused  by  a  variety  of  serotypes  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  United  States.   Eradication  is  not  feasible  because  of 
extensive  reservoirs  of  many  serotypes  in  such  wildlife  hosts  as  deer,  skunks,  rac- 
coons, opossums,  house  and  field  mice,  rats,  muskrats,  bobcats,  squirrels,  woodchucks, 
and  foxes . 

Control  of  the  disease  with  bacterins  is  the  most  effective  procedure  currently 
available.   Bacterins  stimulate  the  host  to  develop  neutralizing  antibodies,  thus  pro- 
viding protection  without  interfering  with  field  testing  programs. 

Vaccination  studies  were  conducted  by  L.E.  Hanson  and  co-workers  in  a  herd  of 
approximately  900  purebred  and  grade  Hereford  cattle  at  the  Dixon  Springs  Agricul- 
tural Center  in  southern  Illinois.   One-half  of  the  herd  was  vaccinated  twice  a  year 
from  1959  to  1964,  and  all  of  the  herd  has  been  vaccinated  once  a  year  since  with  a 
commercial  L.    pomona   bacterin.   Vaccination  with  an  experimental  L.    hardjo   bacterin 
was  started  in  1967,  and  one-half  of  the  herd  has  been  vaccinated  each  year  since. 
These  procedures  have  resulted  in  a  significant  and  continued  decrease  in  reactor 
rates  to  L,  pomona   and  L.    hardjo   serotypes. 

Immunologic  studies  conducted  with  serum  from  these  cattle  indicated  increases 
in  two  classes  of  antibodies.   One  antibody,  IgM,  which  is  primarily  responsible  for 
the  agglutination  reaction,  showed  a  low  response  and  a  relatively  short  duration. 
The  other  antibody,  IgG,  which  was  shown  to  be  primarily  responsible  for  protection 
and  not  detected  by  the  conventional  agglutination  test,  was  the  primary  response  of 
the  cattle  to  vaccination,  and  the  antibodies  persisted  for  approximately  one  year. 

Two  other  serotypes,  L.    grippotyphosa   and  L.    'Later 'ohaemorrhag'iae 3    have  been 
isolated  from  cattle  in  Illinois,  and  L.    aan-ioola   has  been  isolated  from  swine.   Since 
the  immune  response  is  serotype  specific,  protection  of  an  animal  is  dependent  on  the 
use  of  bacterins  containing  serotypes  prevalent  in  the  particular  area.   Currently, 
L.    pomona,    L,    canioola,    and  L.    ■icterohaemorrhagi-a&   vaccines  are  commercially  avail- 
able.  Research  with  L.    hardjo   and  L.    grtppotyphosa   bacterins  indicates  that  they 
too  are  effective  in  controlling  leptospirosis  in  cattle  and  swine. 


137 


LISTERELLOSIS  IN  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 

The  causative  organism,  Listevella  monocytogenes _,  was  first  isolated  by  Murray,  Webb 
and  Swann  in  England  in  1926  during  an  epizootic  among  laboratory  rabbits  and  guinea 
pigs.   Clinical  symptoms  and  pathologic  lesions  vary  with  the  host  species. 

The  first  field  outbreak  in  Illinois  was  found  in  a  flock  of  300  feeder  lambs 
during  the  winter  of  1937-38;  and  the  first  outbreak  in  cattle  was  in  two-year-old 
feeder  steers  in  February,  1938.  Morbidity  in  these  and  other  outbreaks  was  rela- 
tively low,  but  mortality  in  affected  animals  was  very  high. 

In  its  usual  encephalitic  form,   listerellosis  was  quite  readily  diagnosed  by 
bacteriologic  examination  of  the  medulla  at  autopsy.   Once  diagnosis  was  established 
in  a  herd,  the  clinical  symptoms  made  it  possible  to  recognize  affected  animals  quiti 
easily. 

Attempts  at  immunization  of  rabbits,  guinea  pigs,  sheep,  and  cattle  by  means  of 
antisera  were  unsuccessful.  Little  success  was  obtained  either  by  treatment  of  clin: 
cally  affected  sheep  with  sulfanilamide. 

Accounts  of  several  other  outbreaks  of  the  disease  in  Illinois  herds  and  flocks 
can  be  found  in  Bulletin  499  of  the  Illinois  Station  by  Robert  Graham,  N.D.  Levine, 
and  C.C.  Morrill,  published  in  December,  1943. 


138 


LIVESTOCK  WASTE  MANAGEMENT  STUDIES 


Raising  livestock  in  confinement  offers  many  advantages  over  the  older  method  of 
having  animals  scattered  over  a  considerable  acreage  of  land,  but  the  waste  handling 
problem  becomes  of  major  importance.   Often  the  most  urgent  aspect  of  the  problem 
is  the  manure  odor  that  emanates  from  animal  buildings.   This  becomes  increasingly 
serious  when  huge  volumes  of  wastes  are  concentrated  on  small  land  areas.   Pollution 
of  waterways  must  also  be  considered,  because  raw  livestock  waste  contains  10  to  20 
percent  solids  and  has  a  5-day  biochemical  oxygen  demand  (B0Dq)  nearly  100  times  that 
of  municipal  waste. 

Illinois  agricultural  engineers  and  animal  scientists  undertook  a  study  of 
swine  waste  management  problems  encountered  when  the  animals  were  raised  in  confine- 
ment on  self-cleaning  slotted  floors.   Objectives  of  the  study  were  to  refine  the 
knowledge  of  the  physical,  chemical,  and  biological  properties  of  livestock  wastes 
and  to  develop  a  waste-management  system  that: 

1.  Could  be  integrated  with  labor-saving  slotted  floors. 

2.  Would  prevent  air  pollution  both  inside  and  around  the 
livestock  production  buildings. 

3.  Would  eliminate  surface  and  ground  water  pollution. 

4.  Would  utilize  the  intermediate  and  final  products  of  the 
waste-management  process. 

5.  Would  be  economically  feasible  for  the  livestock  enterprise. 

The  aerobic  method  of  treating  livestock  wastes  was  selected  because  previous 
studies  had  shown  that  under  proper  conditions  the  method  was  odorless  and  would 
stabilize  the  oxygen  demand  of  the  wastes. 

Preliminary  oxidation-ditch  studies  were  made  in  the  fall  of  1966  at  the  Hon- 
egger  Research  Farm  near  Fairbury,  Illinois,  and  were  continued  at  the  University 
of  Illinois  Moorman  Swine  Breeding  Research  Farm.   The  trials  conducted  in  this 
study  were  limited  to  buildings  used  for  finishing  swine. 

The  in-the-building  oxidation  ditches  used  were  adapted  from  the  Pasveer  oxi- 
dation waste  treatment  plant  that  had  been  developed  in  the  Netherlands.   They  con- 
sist of  continuous  gutters  beneath  self-cleaning  slotted  floors.   The  gutters  have 
vertical  side  walls  and  shallow  liquid  depths--about  2  feet--with  no  provision  for 
settling  and  supernatant  withdrawal.   The  aeration  motor  runs  continuously,  displac- 
ing the  mixed  liquor  through  a  standpipe  overflow  into  a  lagoon,  keeping  the  liquid 
volume  in  the  ditch  constant  as  raw  waste  from  the  hogs  drops  through  the  slotted 
floor. 

Ultimate  disposal  of  the  overflow  material  still  had  to  be  considered.   Both 
refeeding  of  the  organic  solids  after  separation  from  the  liquids  and  feeding  of 
the  oxidation  ditch  mixed  liquor  (ODML)  were  undertaken  with  finishing  swine  of 
about  50  kg.  initial  weight.   Suspended  solids  passing  through  a  200-mesh  screen 
were  concentrated  by  high-speed  centrifugation  and  dried.   The  resulting  material 
was  found  to  contain  75  percent  crude  protein  (Kjeldahl  nitrogen  x  6.25)  and  rela- 
tively high  levels  of  several  essential  amino  acids. 


139 


When  the  oxidation  ditch  mixed  liquor  was  fed  at  a  ratio  of  two  parts  liquid 
to  1  part  of  a  dry  12-percent-protein  corn-soybean  diet,  pigs  grew  significantly 
faster  and  more  efficiently  than  when  well  water  was  used  in  place  of  the  ODML.   In 
other  trials  the  ODML  was  run  directly  into  water  troughs  for  swine  self-fed  a  12- 
percent-protein  corn-soybean  diet.   The  pigs  dranJc  all  of  the  overflow  from  the 
oxidation  ditch,  thereby  completely  solving  the  problem  of  waste  disposal.   Further- 
more, taste-panel  tests  comparing  pork  chop  samples  from  hogs  fed  ODML  and  from  con- 
trol hogs  showed  that  taste  and  odor  were  not  influenced  by  feeding  the  aerobically 
processed  material. 

Similar  tests  with  beef  cattle  on  slotted  floors,  begun  in  1967,  have  been 
equally  successful.   The  lagoon  gradually  fills  with  solids  and  has  to  be  emptied 
about  twice  a  year.   The  liquid  is  pumped  off,  and  the  solid  material  is  spread  on 
the  land  as  fertilizer. 

The  project  has  shown  that  use  of  an  oxidation  ditch  beneath  slotted  floors  is 
a  successful  method  of  waste  management  in  confined  livestock  buildings,  with  low 
labor,  low  odors,  and  a  high  degree  of  pollution  control.   The  only  disturbing  fac- 
tor seems  to  be  the  cost  of  operating  the  aerators,  which  is  discouraging  to  many 
producers.   Refeeding  the  processed  waste  can  help  offset  the  operational  expense 
and  also  reduce  the  amount  of  waste  effluent  from  the  buildings. 


140 


LOW-TEMPERATURE  DRYING  AND  CONDITIONING  OF  SHELLED  CORN 


Drying  of  field-shelled  corn  to  proper  moisture  levels  for  sale  or  for  holding  on 
the  farm  is  an  almost  universal  problem  for  farmers  in  Illinois  and  surrounding 
states.  The  importance  of  grain  quality  and  the  interest  in  it  are  shown  by  the  at- 
tendance of  100  to  300  men  and  women  at  the  annual  grain  conditioning  conference 
which  has  been  offered  by  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Engineering  since  1962. 
Those  attending  have  included  farmers,  elevator  operators,  grain  dealers  and  distri- 
butors, equipment  manufacturers,  and  electric  power  suppliers  from  five  to  ten  states 
and  Canada. 

F.W.  Andrew,  G.C.  Shove,  and  E.F.  Olver  of  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Engi- 
neering developed  a  system  of  low- temperature  drying  that  has  had  wide  acceptance. 
It  has  stood  the  test  of  good  and  bad  seasons  for  drying,  best  exemplified  perhaps 
by  the  contrast  between  1973  when  weather  and  other  conditions  were  nearly  ideal, 
and  1972  when  conditions  were  highly  unfavorable,  and  everything  seemed  to  go  wrong. 

Maintenance  of  high-quality  grain  in  existing  trade  channels  involves: 

1.  Improving  harvesting  techniques  to  minimize  such  grain  damage  as  cracking 
of  corn  kernels. 

2.  Developing  varieties  and  strains  that  are  well  adapted  to  harvesting  with 
mechanized  equipment. 

3.  Maximizing  the  use  of  solar  energy  for  early  drying  of  the  crop  at  minimum 
cost. 

4.  Making  proper  use  of  appropriate  conditioning  systems,  as  indicated  by  lo- 
cal conditions. 

Successful  low-temperature  drying  can  be  thought  of  as  a  "middle  of-the-road" 
process  which  avoids  both  the  mold  problem  often  experienced  when  drying  grain  by 
natural  air  during  unfavorable  weather  and  the  problem  of  possible  overdrying,  brit- 
tle kernels,  and  caramelizing  of  the  starch  when  high  heat  inputs  are  used.  The  sys- 
tem calls  for  the  use  of  natural  air  plus  4  to  6  degrees  F.  of  heat,  including  the 
motor  heat,  and  an  air  flow  of  1  to  1-1/2  cfm  per  bushel  of  corn  with  an  initial 
moisture  content  of  no  more  than  24  percent.  With  26-percent -moisture  corn,  the  air 
flow  must  be  increased  to  2  or  more  cfm  per  bushel. 

Several  weeks  of  weather  favorable  to  low-temperature  drying  can  be  expected 
in  the  Corn  Belt  during  October  and  November.  Final  moisture  content  of  corn  dried 
with  unheated  air  during  this  period  will  probably  be  17  to  19  percent  because  rel- 
ative humidity  of  the  air  is  likely  to  be  about  80  percent.  Drying  under  such  condi- 
tions would  take  about  a  nonth.  During  a  wet  fall,  the  addition  of  some  heat  will  be 
necessary. 


141 


A  most  important  consideration  is  to  operate  the  grain-conditioning  system  so 
as  to  avoid  the  development  of  mold  in  the  high-moisture  zone  at  the  top  of  the  bin 
load  of  corn.  Mold  curves  have  been  developed  to  facilitate  proper  management.  They 
show,  for  example,  that  when  the  grain  temperature  is  70°  F.  or  higher,  mold  will 
develop  in  about  a  week  in  corn  stored  at  a  moisture  content  of  24  percent  or  more. 
By  contrast,  corn  containing  no  more  than  18  percent  noisture  can  be  held  for  as 
long  as  a  month  at  70°  F. ,  or  for  three  months  at  55°  F.  before  there  is  danger  of 
mold  developing. 

The  fan  horsepower  and  heater  kw  requirements  for  low-temperature  drying  have 
been  determined  with  considerable  accuracy,  and  can  be  summarized  as  follows: 

For  shelled  corn,  using  1  cfm/bushel 


Bin 

size, 

ft. 

Level  fill 

Static 
pressure, 

Fan  horse- 

Kw 

for  5°  F. 

Grain 

rise  in 

Diameter 

depth 

(bushels) 

inches  HO 

power 

tei 

nperature 

16 

16 

2,700 

2-1/2 

3 

5 

18 

16 

3,300 

2-1/2 

3 

5 

22 

20 

6,000 

4 

7-1/2 

10 

24 

18 

6,500 

3 

5 

11 

27 

18 

8,000 

3 

7-1/2 

13 

27 

20 

9,000 

4 

10 

15 

34 

18 

13,000 

3 

12-1/2 

22 

36 

13 

10,000 

1-1/2 

7-1/2 

17 

36 

18 

15,000 

3 

15 

25 

40 

20 

20,000 

4 

20 

33 

For  1-1/2  cfm  per  bushel,  fill  only  to  two-thirds  the  above  indicated  depth; 

for  2  cfm  per  bushel,  fill  to  only  half  the  indicated  depth.  The  total  temperature 

rise  will  be  about  7  degrees,  since  heat  from  the  fan  motor  will  raise  air  tempera- 
ture about  2  degrees . 

Some  Management   Variations 

Dryeration   involves  the  use  of  a  high-temperature  drying  process  to  dry  the 
grain  to  about  17-18  percent  moisture  content.  The  grain  is  then  removed  from  the 
dryer  and  placed  in  a  temporary  storage  bin  where  it  is  allowed  to  stand  (steep)  for 
4  to  8  hours.  After  the  steeping  period,  the  grain  is  cooled  with  an  airflow  of  1/2 
to  1  cfm  per  bushel.  When  it  has  cooled  sufficiently  (about  12  to  20  hours),  it  is 
moved  to  the  final  storage  bin. 

Aeration   consists  of  blowing  a  small  amount  of  air  such  as  1/20  to  1/5  cfm  per 
bushel  through  the  grain  steadily  or  larger  amounts  of  air  intermittently  to  keep 
the  grain  at  the  same  temperature  as  that  of  the  outside  air.  This  control  of  air 
currents  through  the  grain  mass  helps  to  keep  the  grain  in  condition,  and  should 
prevent  the  condensation  of  moisture  in  the  top  layer  of  grain  in  the  bin,  thereby 
reducing  the  likelihood  of  mold. 

Stir  drying   involves  mixing  the  dry  grain  in  the  bottom  of  the  bin  with  the 
moist  grain  at  the  top,  thereby  drying  the  full  depth  of  grain  uniformly  instead  of 
drying  the  bottom  first  and  the  top  last . 


142 


High-Low  Temperature  Drying   is  similar  to  dryeration,  except  that  the  grain  is 
removed  from  the  dryer  at  20  percent  moisture  (either  before  or  after  cooling)  and 
placed  in  the  final  storage  bin.   The  drying  is  then  completed  by  using  the  low- 
temperature  drying  process.   If  the  grain  is  removed  from  the  high-temperature  dryer, 
there  will  be  little  if  any  condensation  of  moisture  on  the  underside  of  the  storage 
bin  roof. 

Cooling   the  grain  with  cold  night  air  is  a  worthwhile  management  procedure,  es- 
pecially if  it  is  necessary  or  desirable  to  hold  the  grain  as  long  as  possible  at  a 
fairly  high  moisture  content. 

Preservatives  (acids)  may  be  used  on  high-moisture  grain  as  a  further  aid  to 
holding  corn  over  prolonged  periods  without  drying.  Such  acid-preserved  corn  must 
usually  be  fed  rather  than  sold. 

Close  and  frequent  observation  of  grain-moisture  content  is  essential  during 
drying  and  even  more  important  during  storage.   A  moisture  tester  is  therefore  almost 
a  necessity  on  the  farm. 

Insuring  High-Quality  Grain 

In  order  to  have  high-quality  grain  when  it  is  removed  from  storage,  one  must 
first  have  high-quality  grain  to  store.  This  means  clean  grain,  with  all  trash  and 
fine  particles  removed,  so  that  there  will  be  no  hindrance  to  proper  air  flow  during 
drying.  The  top  of  the  pile  must  be  level,  as  a  further  assurance  of  even  air  flow, 
and  total  depth  must  not  be  too  great  for  the  fan  to  force  air  up  through  the  grain 
mass  at  a  uniform  rate. 

Agricultural  engineers  offer  the  following  summary  of  management  suggestions: 

1.  Grain  should  be  free  of  excess  dirt,  fines,  and  chaff.  Screening  devices 
are  recommended. 

2.  Keep  grain  level  as  the  bin  is  filled.  Grain-leveling  devices  are  recommended. 

3.  Start  the  fan  as  soon  as  grain  is  placed  in  the  bin,  and  continue  to  operate 
even  during  periods  of  rain  or  high-humidity  weather  until  the  grain  is  dry  or  air 
temperature  drops  to  and  remains  below  freezing  for  24  hours  or  more.  When  the  tem- 
perature rises  above  freezing,  the  fan  should  be  restarted. 

4.  Open,  and  leave  open,  all  roof  hatches  in  order  to  provide  a  large  air- 
escape  area. 

5.  Use  a  mercury-in-glass  thermometer  for  checking  the  temperature  of  both 
ambient  air  and  plenum  air  to  determine  air  temperature  rise. 

6.  Attach  a  manometer  to  the  air  plenum  to  measure  static  pressure,  and  use 
manufacturer's  fan-performance  charts  to  determine  air  flow. 

7.  Do  not  exceed  design  criteria.   If  necessary,  limit  grain  depth  to  obtain 
proper  air  flow  in  relation  to  grain  moisture  content. 

8.  After  drying  is  completed,  close  roof  hatches  and  cover  fan  inlets  to  pre- 
vent drifting  air,  particularly  high-humidity  winter  air,  from  adding  moisture  back 
to  dry  grain. 


143 


9.  Aerate  dry  grain  to  keep  it  cool  and  to  prevent  moisture  migration.   The 
drying  fan  can  be  used  for  aeration  by  operating  it  about  12  hours  every  7  to  10  days. 

10.  Practice  good  safety  rules  at  all  times  while  working  in  or  around  grain 
bins  and  drying  equipment. 


144 


THE  M  BLOOD-GROUP  SYSTEM  AND 
SURVIVAL  OF  SUFFOLK  AND  TARGHEE  LAMBS 


In  1965  while  on  sabbatical  leave  at  the  United  Kingdom  Agricultural  Research  Council 
Animal  Breeding  Research  Organization,  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  B.A.  Rasmusen  of  the 
Department  of  Animal  Science  typed  115  Scottish  Blackface,  Welsh  Mountain,  and  Cheviot 
sheep  for  red  blood  cell  antigens.   When  comparing  his  results  with  those  of  J.G. 
Hall,  who  was  determining  red  blood  cell  potassium  levels,  they  discovered  that  the 
same  genes  controlled  antigens  in  the  M  blood-group  system  and  red  blood  cell  potas- 
sium levels. 

Two  years  later,  blood  samples  collected  from  Suffolk,  Targhee,  and  Suffolk  x 
Targhee  crossbred  sheep  at  the  Dixon  Springs  Agricultural  Center  were  used  by  B.A. 
Rasmusen  and  J.M.  Lewis  to  study  the  relationship  between  types  in  the  M  blood-group 
system  and  lamb  mortality.   High  (HK)  and  low  (LK1  red-cell  potassium,  together  with 
types  in  the  M  blood-group  system,  was  used  to  classify  sheep  as  M  (homozygous  MM} 
HK) ,  ML (heterozygous  Mm3    LK) ,  and  L (homozygous  mm3    LK) . 

There  were  7  M,  10  ML,  and  7  L  Suffolk  rams,  and  1  M,  6  ML,  and  15  L  Targhee  rams 
Mortality  was  relatively  high  for  both  M(HK)  and  L (homozygous  LK)  Suffolk  rams  and 
for  M(HK)  Suffolk  ewes.   In  the  Targhees,  mortality  was  relatively  low  for  all  groups, 
and  there  were  few  matings  involving  HK  sheep.   When  offspring  from  all  four  matings 
in  which  a  1:1  ratio  of  ML  to  L  lambs  was  expected  were  pooled,  there  were  80  ML 
lambs  and  124  L  lambs,  a  highly  significant  deviation  from  the  1:1  ratio,  indicating 
that  in  the  Dixon  Springs  flock  L (homozygous  LK)  lambs  have  an  advantage  over  ML 
(heterozygous  LK)  lambs. 


145 


THE  MAIZE  GENETICS  LABORATORY 


The  only  project  involving  worldwide  sources  for  the  maintenance  of  a  comprehensive 
collection  of  genetic  chromosomal  tester  stocks  and  chromosomal  aberrations  of  maize 
is  the  one  maintained  at  Urbana,  Illinois,  under  the  supervision  of  R.J.  Lambert  of 
the  Agronomy  Department.  The  project  is  the  outgrowth  of  an  informal  program  begun 
in  the  late  1920's  under  the  leadership  of  the  late  R.A.  Emerson  of  Cornell  Univer- 
sity, in  which  maize  geneticists  cooperated  informally  in  the  maintenance  and  dis- 
tribution of  genetic  stocks  of  maize  which  were  grown  and  stored  at  Cornell.   Seed 
samples  were  distributed  on  request  to  maize  workers  throughout  the  world. 

In  1953  the  collection  was  moved  to  the  University  of  Illinois,  where  it  was 
supervised  by  E.B.  Patterson  until  1966,  when  Dr.  Lambert  assumed  responsibility  for 
its  continuing  maintenance.  Since  1959,  the  National  Science  Foundation  has  provided 
the  necessary  funding  for  this  work. 

The  nucleus  of  stocks  represented  by  the  Cornell  collection  has  been  greatly 
augmented  by  the  addition  of  new  genetic  and  chromosomal  testers  from  a  large  number 
of  sources.  The  importance  of  the  project  is  well  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  from 
the  early  1960!s  to  the  early  1970's  about  1,600  samples  were  distributed  annually, 
nearly  a  fourth  of  them  in  response  to  an  average  of  40  requests  a  year  from  foreign 
countries. 

Selection  of  stocks  to  be  added  to  the  collection  is  governed  chiefly  by  the 
needs  of  maize  geneticists,  but  increasing  use  of  the  collection  is  being  made  by 
maize  breeders,  biochemists,  plant  physiologists,  and  teachers. 

The  current  program  covers  broad  areas  of  maize  genetics,  some  of  which  are: 

1.  Assembly  of  genetic  stocks:  Locating  seed  sources  of  older  traits  not  al- 
ready in  the  collection;  accepting  for  maintenance  new  traits  or  gene  combinations 
made  available  by  maize  geneticists;  and  attempting  to  find  certain  "lost  traits" 
that  may  be  in  various  stocks. 

2.  Maintenance  and  seed  increase:  Replenishing  seed  supplies  of  stocks  as 
needed;  and  conversion  of  certain  unadapted  stocks  to  desirable  genetic  backgrounds 
adapted  to  the  Corn  Belt. 

3.  Distribution  of  stocks  and  information:  Filling  requests  for  seed,  along 
with  any  necessary  information  as  to  classification,  linkage  relationships,  and  use; 
and  providing  information  on  the  use  of  genetic  traits  or  gene  combinations  for  spe- 
cific studies. 

4.  Evaluation  of  new  traits  and  new  gene  combinations:  Evaluating  new  traits 
for  their  suitability  as  genetic  markers;  and  determining  for  certain  combinations 
whether  any  genetic  interactions  exist  that  could  interfere  with  accurate  classifi- 
cation of  any  of  the  traits  involved. 

5.  Confirmation  of  pedigrees:  Making  pedigree  confirmation  tests  of  seedling 
traits  in  the  greenhouse  or  of  mature  plants  in  observation  nurseries  as  the  need 
arises;  making  appropriate  test  crosses  to  determine  or  confirm  pedigrees;  and  making 
homozygosis  tests  to  maintain  the  large  collection  of  chromosome  translocations  and 
inversions . 


146 


6.  Allelism  testing:  Testing  new  traits  submitted  each  year  to  determine  wheth- 
er they  are  allelic  to  traits  already  in  the  collection;  and  also  making  such  tests 
on  new  traits  that  occur  in  stocks  that  may  have  been  in  the  collection  for  some  time. 

7.  Assignment  of  genes  to  chromosomes:  Making  necessary  studies  to  assign  un- 
located  traits  to  specific  chromosomes,  using  A-B  and  waxy-translocation  stocks;  and 
using  nonwaxy  translocation  stocks  and  inversions  when  results  of  the  preceding  tests 
are  negative. 

8.  Chromosome  mapping:  Interest  has  shifted  to  the  finding  of  precise  locations 
for  those  traits  that  are  good  chromosome  markers;  with  emphasis  on  endosperm,  non- 
lethal  seedling,  and  mature  plant  traits. 

9.  Development  of  new  combinations  of  markers:  New  combinations  of  traits  are 
obtained  from  other  geneticists  as  they  become  available;  and  seed  of  new  combina- 
tions of  traits  obtained  from  the  linkage  studies  just  mentioned  is  increased  and 
added  to  the  stock  list. 

There  are  now  about  130,000  individually  pedigreed  samples  in  the  collection, 
and  there  is  growing  concern  about  insurance  against  possible  destruction  of  the  col- 
lection by  a  natural  catastrophe.  Some  of  the  cultures  have  been  maintained  as  long 
as  fifty  years.  In  each  of  the  past  few  years,  about  35,000  plants  have  been  grown 
each  summer,  and  about  2,000  seedling  tests  have  been  run  each  winter  in  greenhouse 
sand  benches.  Information  from  these  tests  and  notes  on  traits  appearing  in  field 
plantings  are  used  to  determine  genotypes  in  the  current  generation  and  to  supple- 
ment information  on  previous  generations. 

A  complete  inventory  of  each  year's  harvest  is  made,  listing  known  pedigree  in- 
formation for  each  ear.  A  list  of  the  most  useful  genetic  stocks  is  submitted  annual- 
ly to  the  Maize  Genetics  Cooperation  Newsletter  to  be  used  as  a  basis  for  seed  re- 
quests. Seed  samples,  usually  50  kernels  or  less,  are  provided  free  of  charge  to 
research  workers  throughout  the  world. 


147 


McLEAN  COUNTY  SYSTEM  OF  SWINE  SANITATION 


A  significant  step  in  efficient  swine  production  was  taken  when  the  McLean 
County  system  for  raising  pigs  free  from  worms  and  necrotic  infection  was  first 
tried  with  fall  pigs  on  the  farm  of  G.C.  Johnstone,  near  Bloomington  in  1919.   The 
system  had  been  devised  by  B.H.  Ransom  and  H.B.  Raffensperger  of  the  U.S.  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry.   The  Johnstone  trial  was  so  successful  that  the  plan  was  soon 
extended  to  a  number  of  other  farms  in  McLean  County;  and  six  years  later  608  far- 
mers in  61  Illinois  counties  were  cooperating  with  the  College  of  Agriculture  in 
further  testing  the  system  and  demonstrating  its  merits.   Results  obtained  were 
summarized  by  E.T.  Robbins,  associate  professor  of  animal  husbandry  extension,  as 
follows : 

'The  usual  number  of  pigs  have  been  raised  from  one- fourth  fewer  sows;  the  sows 
have  raised  98  percent  of  the  pigs  saved  at  farrowing  time;  almost  no  runts  have 
been  found  among  the  sanitation  pigs;  and  the  pigs  are  heavier  at  four  months 
of  age,  more  uniform  in  weight  and  condition,  ready  for  market  earlier,  and 
produced  more  cheaply  than  pigs  raised  under  common  conditions. 

The  system  involved  four  simple  but  essential  steps  designed  to  prevent  the 
little  pigs,  until  they  are  at  least  four  months  old  and  reasonably  resistant  to 
infestation,  from  swallowing  incubated  worm  eggs: 

1.  Clean  the  farrowing  quarters  to  remove  dirt  and  worm  eggs.   Scrub  with 
1  pound  of  lye  in  30  gallons  of  boiling  hot  water.   Then  spray  with  1  pound  of 
compound  cresol  solution  in  4  gallons  of  water.   The  hot  water  kills  worm  eggs;  the 
lye  loosens  the  dirt;  the  disinfectant  destroys  germs  of  infectious  diseases.   Scrub- 
bing can  be  made  easier  by  keeping  the  floors  wet  for  a  day  or  two  to  soak  the  dirt 
loose. 

2.  Wash  the  sow's  sides  and  udder  with  soap  and  water  before  putting  her  in  a 
clean  farrowing  pen.  This  removes  worm  eggs  which  the  pigs  might  otherwise  swallow 
when  they  suck. 

3.  Haul  pigs  and  sows  to  pasture,  unless  they  can  be  driven  all  the  way  over 
ground  which  has  not  been  used  for  hogs  within  a  year.   This  is  not  so  important  if 
sows  are  moved  to  pasture  before  farrowing.   The  pasture  should  be  one  that  has  been 
cultivated  since  last  used  by  hogs. 

4.  Confine  pigs  to  clean  pasture  until  they  are  at  least  four  months  old.   A 
pig-tight  fence  is  essential.   An  acre  of  good  alfalfa  may  furnish  enough  forage 
for  five  sows  and  their  pigs;  but  many  pastures  will  accommodate  no  more  than  three 
sows  with  their  pigs  per  acre;  and  some  will  require  an  acre  for  each  sow. 

Enterprise  cost  records  secured  from  25  farms  in  McLean  and  Woodford  Counties 
in  a  carefully  supervised  study  of  the  cost  of  producing  pork  showed  clearly  that 
swine  sanitation  materially  reduced  the  amount  of  feed  required  to  grow  and  fatten 
pigs.   Weanling  pigs  on  eight  farms  where  the  sanitation  system  was  practiced  quite 
completely  required  399  pounds  of  grain  and  other  concentrates  to  produce  100  pounds 
of  gain,  while  weanling  pigs  on  eight  other  farms  where  no  attempt  was  made  to  keep 
pigs  out  of  infested  quarters  took  501  pounds  of  grain  and  other  concentrates  for 
each  100  pounds  of  gain. 


148 


MEAT  FOR  THE  TABLE 


In  the  mid-1800' s  most  Illinois  beef  cattle  were  driven  east  to  be  sold  in  Lancaster 
County,  Pennsylvania,  where  they  were  finished  for  sale  in  Philadelphia.   Sometimes 
all  or  part  of  a  drove  would  be  sold  along  the  way  in  Ohio.   After  the  Chicago  Union 
Stock  Yards  were  built  in  1865,  both  cattle  and  hogs  were  driven  from  central  Illinois 
to  Chicago.   The  trip  from  McLean  County  with  200  to  300  head  of  cattle  or  as  many 
as  1,000  hogs  took  11  or  12  days. 

Many  farm  families  butchered  their  own  pork,  and  often  beef  as  well;  and  arrange- 
ments with  a  hired  man  or  tenant  commonly  included  the  privilege  of  keeping  a  cow, 
raising  two  or  three  hogs,  and  keeping  a  small  flock  of  chickens,  all  to  be  fed  from 
undivided  feed  on  the  farm. 

One  of  the  early  publications  of  the  Illinois  Station  was  Bulletin  78  entitled 
"Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Cattle,  With  Suggestions  for  Interpreting  Market  Quali- 
ty."  It  was  a  67-page  report  of  a  detailed  study  made  by  H.W.  Mumford  at  the  Union 
Stock  Yards  in  Chicago.   Published  in  1902,  it  formed  the  basis  for  the  official  stand- 
ards and  grades  still  being  used  with  some  modifications  in  all  major  markets.   Dur- 
ing the  next  six  years,  parallel  studies  were  made  of  the  market  classes  and  grades 
of  swine  by  William  Dietrich,  of  horses  and  mules  by  R.C.  Obrecht,  of  sheep  by  W.C. 
Coffey,  and  of  meat  by  L.D.  Hall.   Eventually,  government  grades  were  applied  to  car- 
casses and  to  retail  cuts  of  meat.   To  help  the  consumer  understand  and  apply  this 
information  when  making  local  purchases,  Sleeter  Bull  and  associates  wrote  a  series 
of  Extension  circulars  entitled  "Beef  for  the  Table,"  "Pork  for  the  Table,"  "Veal  for 
the  Table,"  and  "Lamb  and  Mutton  for  the  Table,"  published  from  1944  to  1949. 

During  the  ten  years  from  1910  to  1919,  the  price  of  prime  steam  lard  per  100 
pounds  at  Chicago  averaged  40  percent  above  the  price  of  live  hogs.   Heavy  hogs  were 
prized  because  they  literally  carried  the  most  bushels  of  corn  to  market  to  be  con- 
verted into  lard.   Thirty  years  later  live  hogs  and  lard  were  about  equal  in  price, 
and  still  later,  in  1953,  the  price  of  prime  steam  lard  was  42  percent  below  the  price 
of  live  hogs.   Simple  feeding  programs  were  no  longer  suitable,  and  swine  growers  be- 
gan to  profit  from  the  long  series  of  studies  by  Illinois  animal  scientists  dealing 
with  the  protein  requirements  of  swine--studies  which  led  eventually  to  the  develop- 
ment of  simplified  corn-soybean  rations  for  pigs  of  all  ages. 

Beef  production  has  traditionally  been  a  fragmented  operation.   A  rancher  raised 
calves  and  sold  them  to  feeders  in  the  Corn  Belt  who  finished  them  out  in  feedlots. 
There  were  many  such  feedlots  on  Illinois  farms,  each  with  the  capacity  to  handle  one 
or  two  carloads  of  cattle.   When  ready  for  market,  these  cattle  were  sold  to  a  slaugh- 
ter house,  after  which  the  carcasses  were  sent  to  a  wholesaler  and  on  to  a  butcher 
shop  or  grocery  store.   The  current  trend,  however,  is  toward  integration,  best  ex- 
emplified by  some  of  the  large  feedlots  in  the  high  plains  country  of  Colorado,  Okla- 
homa, New  Mexico,  and  Texas,  in  which  500,000  or  more  head  of  cattle  can  be  fed  at 
one  time.   At  least  one  large  operator  in  Colorado  has  a  packing  plant  as  a  part  of 
his  business. 


149 


MEAT-TYPE  HOG  PROGRAM 


In  the  early  1950' s  it  became  apparent  that  a  significant  change  was  taking  place  in 
the  type  of  market  hog  wanted  in  most  markets.   Discriminating  purchasers  were  look- 
ing for  more  lean  and  less  fat  in  retail  cuts,  and  this  called  for  major  changes  in 
selection  and  breeding  on  the  part  of  swine  growers.   The  challenge  to  Illinois  live- 
stock specialists  was  to  show  pork  producers  what  changes  were  needed  and  how  they 
might  best  be  accomplished.   Three  approaches  were  successfully  used  in  the  meat-type 
hog  program. 

Meat-Type  Hog  Demonstrations 

Producers  in  every  county  in  Illinois  had  an  opportunity  to  participate  in  de- 
monstrations, sixty  of  which  were  held  on  either  a  county  or  an  area  basis  over  a 
period  of  three  years.   A  typical  demonstration  was  conducted  as  follows: 

Thirteen  hogs  were  selected  at  a  local  market.   Three  of  these--a  meaty  one,  an 
average  one,  and  an  overfat  one--were  used  as  demonstration  hogs.   Extension  special- 
ists estimated  the  carcass  length,  backfat,  and  percent  of  lean  of  four  cuts  for  each 
of  these  hogs,  and  pointed  out  to  producers  in  attendance  the  traits  that  can  be  seen 
in  a  live  hog  and  that  can  be  used  to  make  these  estimates.   Producers  were  then  asked 
to  make  the  same  sort  of  estimates  on  the  remaining  ten  hogs. 

After  the  hogs  were  slaughtered  and  carcass  data  secured,  a  second  meeting  was 
held  at  which  the  13  carcasses  were  displayed  with  one  side  uncut  and  the  other  side 
divided  into  wholesale  cuts.   This  gave  producers  an  opportunity  to  observe  the  large 
differences  between  hogs,  and  to  compare  their  estimates  with  actual  results.   Exten- 
sion specialists  then  discussed  in  detail  how  selection  programs  could  be  used  to 
develop  a  strain  having  the  more  meaty,  desirable  characteristics. 

Boar-Testing  Stations  and  Certification 

The  first  central  boar-testing  station  in  the  United  States  started  operation 
at  Forrest,  Illinois,  in  the  mid  1950's  This  captured  the  imagination  of  Illinois 
producers,  and  several  other  local  stations  were  soon  opened,  until  at  one  time  there 
were  eight  operating  in  the  state.   These  served  as  valuable  local  demonstrations, 
but  most  were  too  small  for  efficient  operation  with  a  limited  number  of  breeders 
participating,  and  all  but  two  have  since  closed  down.   By  1974  one  large  station  was 
still  operating  at  Western  Illinois  University  at  Macomb  and  a  smaller,  privately 
owned  one  was  operating  at  Mascoutah  in  St.  Clair  County.   Nearly  all  states  with  a 
swine  population  of  any  consequence  have  followed  the  Illinois  example  and  have  boar- 
testing  stations  in  operation.   Extension  specialists  usually  serve  in  an  advisory 
capacity  and  meet  occasionally  with  the  board  of  directors  of  each  station. 

Concurrent  with  the  development  of  the  boar-testing  stations  was  the  meat-hog 
certification  program  sponsored  by  the  purebred  swine  record  associations.   The  pur- 
pose of  this  program  is  to  identify  within  each  breed  of  swine  the  strains  that 
are  superior  in  carcass  meatiness  and  growth  rate.   Here  again,  the  Extension  spe- 
cialists serve  in  an  advisory  capacity.   More  certified  litters  and  more  certified 
meat  sires  have  been  identified  in  Illinois  than  in  any  other  state. 


150 


Pork  Premiere 

A  third  step  called  Pork  Premiere,  went  beyond  the  carcass  contest  and  gave  equal 
emphasis  to  growth  rate  and  carcass  meatiness.   Pigs  entered  in  this  program  are  tat- 
tooed for  identification  when  they  are  quite  young,  usually  before  they  weigh  20 
pounds.   At  slaughter,  an  index  which  includes  carcass  meatiness  traits  and  growth 
rate  is  calculated.   Such  contests  are  conducted  at  the  county  level,  at  the  State 
Fair  in  both  the  junior  and  open  swine  shows,  and  at  the  Illinois  Spring  Barrow 
Show.   At  the  Barrow  Show  in  the  spring  of  1973  more  than  1,000  pigs  were  nominated. 
This  kind  of  contest  and  demonstration  is  of  particular  interest  to  commercial  pro- 
ducers because  it  attempts  to  measure  total  performance.   Several  other  states  have 
copied  this  phase  of  the  Illinois  program. 


151 


MUCIA 


The  Midwest  Universities  Consortium  for  International  Activities  (MUCIA)  was  incor- 
porated January  30,  1964,  by  the  University  of  Illinois,  Indiana  University,  Michi- 
gan State  University,  and  the  University  of  Wisconsin  to  assist  the  four  institu- 
tions in  rendering  more  effective  technical  assistance  abroad,  and  to  gain  from  their 
overseas  activities  the  maximum  of  academic  benefit  on  their  respective  campuses. 

To  make  possible  the  attainment  of  these  objectives,  the  Ford  Foundation  made 
a  five-year  grant  to  the  Consortium.  The  University  of  Minnesota  joined  MUCIA  in 
July,  1969.   Whenever  possible,  the  Consortium  contributes  to  these  objectives, 
abroad  and  at  home,  by  promoting  cooperative  activities  of  the  five  universities. 
There  are  four  categories  of  support : 

1.  Manpower  Development.   To  help  meet  the  need  for  faculty  members  capable 
of  contributing  to  the  international  aspect  of  university  teaching,  research,  and 
service,  the  Consortium  supports  manpower  development  by  guaranteeing  availability 
of  faculty,  by  integrating  faculty  overseas  experience  into  teaching  and  research, 
and  by  compiling  manpower  rosters  by  means  of  faculty  questionnaires. 

2.  Training  Programs.   These  include  graduate  training  and  faculty  orientation. 

3.  Research  and  Publication.   This  includes  faculty  research,  evaluation  of 
overseas  operations,  exploratory  studies,  library  materials,  and  publication. 

4.  Cooperative  Activities.   Three  such  projects  were  originated  during  the 
first  two  years : 

1.  Assisting  the  Government  of  Thailand  in  establishing  a  National  Institute 
for  Development  Administration.  Administered  for  the  Consortium  by  Indiana  University 
and  supported  by  a  grant  from  the  Ford  Foundation. 

2.  Providing  assistance  to  the  Universidad  Agraria  of  Peru  in  strengthening 
its  Faculty  of  Sciences.  Also  financed  by  the  Ford  Foundation  and  administered  for 
the  Consortium  by  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 

3.  A  cooperative  effort  by  the  Consortium  and  the  Brazilian  Ministry  of  Educa- 
tion for  an  extensive  study  of  the  organizational  structure  and  future  needs  of  high- 
er education  in  Brazil.  Staffed  jointly  by  Brazilian  and  Consortium  representatives 

The  Consortium  has  also  jointly  supported,  with  the  American  International  As- 
sociation for  Economic  and  Social  Development  and  the  National  Research  Council  of 
Brazil,  an  extensive  exploratory  study  of  the  planalto  region  of  Brazil  to  determine 
the  feasibility  of  a  broad  but  coordinated  development  program  for  this  area. 


152 


Two  projects  in  which  the  University  of  Illinois  College  of  Agriculture  was 
involved  were: 

An  Agricultural  Higher  Education  Project  in  Indonesia  to  provide  assistance  to 
the  Government  of  Indonesia  in  its  efforts  to  build  an  improved  system  of  institu- 
tions for  agricultural  instruction  and  research  at  the  collegiate  level,  and  to 
strengthen  the  U.S.  universities  in  their  capacity  to  render  assistance  to  the  trop- 
ical areas  of  the  world. 

An  Indonesian  Konsorsium,  supported  by  the  Ministry  of  Education,  has  been 
formed  to  serve  as  a  counterpart  to  MUCIA.   This  Konsorsium  provides  a  mechanism 
for  communication  and  joint  planning,  and  a  forum  for  exchange  of  ideas  among  its 
members.  There  is  a  sense  of  urgency  among  Indonesian  leaders  for  action  in  this 
project,  and  the  long-term  outlook  for  Indonesian  agriculture  is  good. 

University  of  Illinois  staff  members  directly  involved  in  the  early  years 
included : 

H.S.  Bryan,  Veterinary  Medicine,  July  to  November,  1972 

E.R.  Leng,  Crop  Ecology,  January  to  May,  1971 

H.H.  Hadley,  Plant  Genetics,  November,  1972  to  February,  1973 

E.C.A.  Runge,  Soils,  July  to  September,  1972 

J.T.  Scott,  Economic  Consultant  in  Methodology,  January  to  May,  1971 

C.S.  Walters,  Consultant  on  Wood  Technology,  September  to  December,  1971 

USAID 

In  September,  1971,  the  University  of  Illinois  entered  into  a  contract  with 
AID  to  provide  an  individual  to  serve  as  Chief  of  the  Agricultural  Universities  De- 
velopment Division  in  the  USAID  Mission  in  New  Delhi,  India.  That  individual  has 
significant  responsibilities  for  assisting  the  Government  of  India  in  the  planning, 
programming,  and  evaluation  of  the  Agricultural  Universities  Development  Program. 
He  also  aids  the  Government  of  India  in  strengthening  education,  extension,  and  re- 
search systems  at  the  central  government  and  state  levels.   R.R.  Renne  first  served 
in  that  capacity. 

Strategies  for  Agricultural   Development 

This  program  was  organized  and  funded  in  1969  to  provide  a  coordinated  inter- 
disciplinary approach  to  significant  problems  in  agricultural  development.   It  pro- 
poses to  draw  on  expert  information  in  a  number  of  disciplines  and  specialties,  to 
examine  experience  in  agricultural  development,  and  to  outline  strategies  appropriate 
to  needs  of  developing  areas.   It  has  been  assisted  by  an  allocation  of  funds  from 
a  Ford  Foundation  grant  to  the  University  of  Illinois. 

Four  projects  were  active  in  1973.   One  was  a  study  of  interrelationships  among 
wheat  and  pulse  crops  in  India.  Another  was  a  study  of  strategies  for  rice  production 
in  West  Africa.  Support  was  provided  for  a  graduate  student  in  economics  to  study 
revenue  and  expenditure  patterns  in  Sierra  Leone,  and  to  the  Survey  Research  Labo- 
ratory for  completing  an  exploratory  study  on  consumer  acceptance  of  new  foods  in 
foreign  countries. 

Typical  strategies  to  be  considered  for  rice  production  include  such  things  as: 

1.   Mechanization  for  rice  production. 


153 


2.  State  ownership  and  operation  of  farms  as  a  means  of  accomplishing  mecha- 
nization. 

3.  State-owned  equipment  to  be  rented  to  farmers. 

4.  Adaptability  of  fertilizer-responsive  varieties  to  various  production  con- 
ditions. 

5.  Substituting  domestically  produced  foods  for  imported  foods. 

6.  The  possibility  of  using  innovation  insurance  to  encourage  small  farmers 
to  participate  in  the  (for  them)  risky  modernization  process. 

MUCIA-AID-Indonesia  Higher  Agricultural   Education  Project 

This  project  is  administered  for  MUCIA  by  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  but  sev- 
eral Illinois  staff  members  have  been  involved.  The  general  purpose  of  the  contract 
is  to  provide  assistance  to  the  Government  of  Indonesia  in  its  efforts  to  build  an 
improved  system  for  agricultural  instruction  and  research  at  the  collegiate  level, 
and  to  strengthen  the  U.S.  universities  in  their  capacity  to  render  technical  assist- 
ance in  the  tropical  area  of  the  world. 

Specifically,  the  project  was  planned  to  provide  technical  assistance  to  the 
agricultural  faculties  of  the  Institut  Pertanian  Bogar  (IPB)  and  of  Gad j ah  Mada  Uni- 
versity (GMU)  in  Jogjakarta,  which  in  turn  will  assist  with  the  development  of  af- 
filiated agricultural  faculties  of  other  universities  in  the  several  provinces  of 
Indonesia.  Requests  from  Indonesia  have  been  for  short-term  consultants  for  periods 
of  three  or  four  months  to  assess  the  problems  and  recommend  procedures.  The  Indo- 
nesian administrators  may  recognize  that  a  problem  exists,  but  want  help  in  deciding 
how  best  to  solve  it. 

Basic  problems  underlying  any  approach  to  improved  agricultural  education  and 
research  are  high  concentrations  of  people,  low  soil  fertility,  small  holdings  of 
one  hectare  or  less  per  farm  family,  and  the  fact  that  although  80  percent  of  the 
population  is  agricultural,  about  80  percent  of  the  students  in  colleges  of  agri- 
culture are  from  the  cities. 

Illinois  staff  members  who  had  short-term  assignments  include  M.S.  Bryan,  Vet- 
erinary Medicine;  E.R.  Leng,  Crop  Ecology;  H.H.  Hadley,  Plant  Genetics;  E.C.A.  Runge, 
Soils;  J.T.  Scott,  Agricultural  Economics;  and  C.S.  Walters,  Wood  Technology. 

World-Wide  Soybean  Project 

The  Program  for  International  Research,  Improvement,  and  Development  of  Soy- 
beans (PIRIDS)  was  organized  in  1969  to  provide  an  agency  which  could  give  world- 
wide attention  to  problems  relating  to  improvement,  development,  and  extended  culture 
of  soybeans.   It  incorporates  the  Coordinated  Research  Project  (CRP)  in  India.  Agron- 
omic field  trials  have  also  been  conducted  in  Argentina,  Brazil,  Colombia,  Ecuador, 
Indonesia,  Nigeria,  Pakistan,  Sierra  Leone,  Thailand,  and  Vietnam.  Expressions  of 
interest  have  been  received  from  several  other  countries. 

Emphasis  has  been  placed  on  varietal  performance,  cultural  practices,  and  pest 
control  information  applicable  to  tropical  and  subtropical  areas.  Since  soybeans  are 
a  minor  or  unknown  crop  in  many  countries,  information  on  marketing,  processing,  and 
utilization  must  also  be  provided.  The  use  of  soybeans  as  a  high-protein,  high-energy 


154 


source  of  human  food  is  receiving  special  attention.  With  this  in  mind,  a  new  Illinois/ 
AID  contract  was  signed  in  1971  to  provide  technical  assistance  on  a  multicountry 
basis  in  processes  for  making  soybeans  usable  in  the  human  diet.  Demonstration  oper- 
ations in  selected  countries  to  evaluate  the  feasibility  of  utilizing  soybeans  at 
the  village  level,  to  test  the  acceptability  of  soybeans  as  food,  and  to  disseminate 
information  and  experiences  are  an  important  part  of  the  program. 

Persons  involved  on  campus  include  E.R.  Leng,  Director,  G.L.  Godfrey,  Agricul- 
tural Economics,  A.C.  Minor,  Agronomy,  Feng-Jou  Wang,  Food  Science,  and  several 
graduate  students.  On  the  field  staff  were  A.I.  Nelson,  Food  Technology  Adviser, 
Pantnagar,  India;  Forster  Davidson,  Microbiology  Adviser,  Pantnagar;  C.N.  Hittle, 
CRP  Coordinator,  Jabalpur,  India;  and  S.W.  Williams,  Adviser  in  Agricultural  Eco- 
nomics, Jabalpur,  India. 

See  also  article  on  INTSOY. 


155 


NATURAL  HISTORY  SURVEY  DISEASE  RESEARCH 


Research  in  the  Section  of  Botany  and  Plant  Pathology  of  the  Illinois  Natural 
History  Survey  has  included  studies  of  diseases  affecting  trees,  shrubs,  vines, 
and  floricultural  crops. 

Research  on  wilt  disease  of  elms  in  Hinsdale,  Illinois,  from  1939  through  1944 
proved  that  the  disease  was  caused  by  a  bacterium  that  was  named  Erwinia  nimipres- 
suralis.      When  the  older  sapwood  and  heartwood  are  invaded  by  this  organism,  a 
water-soaked  condition  develops  that  is  termed  wetwood.   Gas  resulting  from  fer- 
mentation of  the  sap  in  the  infected  wood  creates  pressure  that  forces  the  ferment- 
ed sap  through  wounds  in  the  form  of  a  visible  slime  flux.   Other  external  symp- 
toms include  drooping,  yellowing,  wilting  of  foliage,  dying  of  branches,  and  gen- 
eral decline  of  entire  trees.   There  is  no  known  cure  or  preventive. 

Two  procedures  were  developed  to  aid  in  the  control  of  Dutch  elm  disease. 
Spread  of  the  fungus  through  grafted  roots  betweed  diseased  and  healthy  trees  has 
been  prevented  by  treating  a  linear  strip  of  soil  with  Vapam.  This  is  in  addi- 
tion to  routine  sanitation  procedures  that  include  spraying  with  an  insecticide 
to  prevent  insect  transmission  of  the  disease  to  healthy  trees.  Impregnating 
diseased  trees  with  potassium  iodide  will  prevent  colonization  by  bark  beetles, 
a  technique  that  is  especially  useful  in  cities  where  it  is  not  possible  to  remove 
diseased  elms  promptly  and  in  some  forested  areas  where  removal  is  impractical. 

Study  of  a  vascular  disease  of  oaks  known  as  oak  wilt  has  uncovered  new  in- 
formation about  the  nature  of  the  disease  and  about  methods  of  control.   Micro- 
scopic growth  of  mats  and  pads  of  the  fungus,  Ceratooystis  fagaoearum3    and  pro- 
duction of  perithecia  (perfect  stage  of  the  fungus)  in  nature  have  shown  that  the 
fungus  pads  on  diseased  trees  are  a  growth  form  of  the  fungus.   Other  observations 
include  penetration  of  the  fungus  in  oak  roots  and  its  transmission  by  squirrels, 
insects,  and  mites.   A  toxic  principle  in  oak  heartwood  that  inhibits  growth  of 
the  fungus  has  also  been  studied.   Root  graft  spread  has  been  held  at  a  very  low 
level  by  establishing  poison  barriers  around  infected  trees  or  groups  of  trees 
and,  in  some  cases,  by  poisoning  only  the  diseased  trees. 

Recent  research  has  involved  study  of  environmental  stresses  that  affect  sus- 
ceptibility of  wood  ornamentals  to  certain  disease  organisms.   Among  the  stresses 
being  studied  are  freezing,  drought,  defoliation,  and  transplanting  "shock."  At- 
tempts are  also  being  made  to  develop  techniques  for  measuring  these  stress  fac- 
tors quantitatively. 

A  long-time  study  of  pin  oak  chlorosis   led  to  the  development  of  effective 
controls  using  ferric  citrate,  ferric  ammonium  citrate,  and  chelated  iron  for 
this  economically  important  problem.   Programs  have  been  developed  in  which  cul- 
tural practices  and  fungicidal  chemicals  can  be  combined  to  provide  effective 
control  of  such  diseases  as  stem  blight  of  Vinaa  minor3    anthracnose  of  Alpine 
currant,  powdery  mildew  of  lilac,  sycamore  anthracnose,  and  cedar  rusts.   Studies 
on  wound  healing  in  trees  and  on  fertilization  of  trees  and  shrubs  have  led  to 
improved  recommendations  to  help  in  disease  prevention. 


156 


Fungicide  control  studies  have  shown  that  the  shoot  blight  stage  of  sycamore 
anthracnose  can  usually  be  controlled  by  one  spraying  of  an  organic  mercury  fungi- 
cide applied  as  the  buds  begin  to  swell  in  the  spring,  4  to  7  days  before  first 
leaf  emergence.   A  mean  daily  temperature  range  of  50°  to  55°  F.  is  optimum  for  fun- 
gus activity  and  disease  development.   Little  or  no  shoot  blight  occurs  when  the 
mean  is  above  60°  F.  during  the  two  weeks  after  the  buds  begin  to  swell;  but  if  a 
prolonged  cold  spell  occurs  at  this  time,  a  second  spraying  14  days  after  the 
first  may  be  necessary. 

Of  56  known  woody  hosts  of  verticillium  wilt,  22  were  first  reported  by  Illinois 
workers,  including  such  common  trees  as  blue  ash,  Kentucky  coffee  tree,  Chinese 
elm,  slippery  elm,  pin  oak,  and  sour  gum.   A  list  of  more  than  30  trees  not 
known  to  be  susceptible  has  also  been  compiled,  including  beech,  fir,  ginkgo,  hack- 
berry,  serviceberry,  sweet  gum,  and  sycamore. 

Procedures  developed  for  carnation  and  geranium  growers  include  a  cultured 
cutting  program  for  control  of  Fusarium  and  bacterial  wilts  of  carnations  and  bac- 
terial stem  rot  of  geraniums;  sulfur  fumigators  to  control  rose  mildew  in  commer- 
cial greenhouses;  and  several  corm  treatments  for  control  of  Fusarium  and  Curvularia 
rots  of  gladiolus.   Insecticides  applied  in  the  row  at  planting  time  made  it  possi- 
ble to  control  bulb  mites  that  serve  as  vectors  of  the  bacterial  scab  of  gladiolus. 

Environmental  stresses  such  as  drought,  freezing,  defoliation,  and  transplant- 
ing shock  have  been  found  to  have  pronounced  effects  on  disease  susceptibility  in 
certain  host-pathogen  combinations,  and  procedures  are  being  developed  to  measure 
these  stresses  quantitatively. 


157 


NUCLEAR  MAGNETIC  RESONANCE--NMR 


In  1960,  scientists  from  Corn  Products  Company  and  the  University  of  Illinois  found 
that  spectra  from  wide-line  Nuclear  Magnetic  Spectroscopes  were  associated  with  oil 
content  of  bulk  samples  of  whole  kernel  corn.   Equally  important,  NMR  analysis,  as 
it  is  called,  proved  to  be  nondestructive,  rapid,  and  accurate. 

Furthermore,  with  NMR  the  oil  content  of  a  single  corn  kernel  could  be  determined 
without  affecting  viability.   This  meant  that  high-oil  kernels  could  be  identified 
and  saved  as  needed  until  planting  time,  thereby  simplifying  and  shortening  the  se- 
lection process.   It  is  comparable  to  the  use  of  backfat  measurements  in  swine  to 
identify  superior  individuals  for  breeding. 

The  principle  of  NMR  had  been  enunciated  in  1946  by  Purcell  of  Harvard  and  Block 
of  Stanford,  leading  to  their  selection  for  the  Nobel  Prize  in  physics. 

The  hydrogen  content  of  the  liquid  component  of  a  corn  sample  is  proportional 
to  the  oil  content  of  the  sample,  whether  it  be  a  handful  or  a  single  kernel.   The 
NMR  process  "counts"  the  hydrogen  nuclei  in  the  oil.   The  number  of  oil  molecules  is 
then  determined  by  dividing  the  total  number  of  "counted"  hydrogen  nuclei  by  the  av- 
erage number  of  hydrogens  per  molecule  of  oil. 

Actual  operation  is  very  simple.   A  well-dried  sample  is  weighed,  put  in  a  test 
tube,  and  placed  in  the  machine.   A  switch  is  flipped,  and  two  seconds  later  the  oil 
content  of  the  sample  is  displayed  on  a  panel.   NMR  analysis  is  thus  facilitating  the 
process  of  developing  new  breeding  populations  of  corn  possessing  high  oil  content 
and  inbreds  combining  high  oil  with  high  yield. 


158 


NUTRIENT  LEVELS  IN  ILLINOIS  SOILS  AND  CROPS 


A  major  project  begun  by  the  Agronomy  Department  in  1967  and  completed  two  years  lat- 
er, involved  collection  of  plant  samples  of  corn  or  soybeans  growing  on  known  soil 
types  in  most  counties  of  the  state.   Soil  samples  were  also  collected  near  where 
the  plant  samples  were  taken.   The  purpose  of  the  project  was  to  learn  the  existing 
status  of  soil  fertility  and  plant  composition,  and  to  establish  bench-mark  standards 
for  future  reference.   The  total  involved  1,706  randomly  selected  fields  in  74  coun- 
ties sampled  by  county  extension  advisers. 

Plant  samples  were  collected  at  two  stages  of  growth,  early  and  midseason,  and 
analyzed  for  13  elements--nitrogen  (N)  ,  phosphorus  (P) ,  potassium  (K) ,  calcium  (Ca) , 
magnesium  (Mg) ,  manganese  (Mn) ,  iron  (Fe) ,  zinc  (Zn) ,  boron  (B) ,  copper  (Cu) ,  sodium 
(Na) ,  aluminum  (Al) ,  and  silicon  (Si) .   Early  growth  stage  was  defined  as  12  to  18 
inches  in  height  for  corn  and  5  to  10  inches  for  soybeans.   Whole  plants  were  col- 
lected at  this  stage.   The  midseason  stage  was  defined  as  the  tasseling  period  for 
corn  and  full  height  for  soybeans.   At  this  stage  the  leaf  opposite  an  ear  was  se- 
lected from  corn  plants,  and  the  topmost  fully  developed  leaves  were  collected  from 
soybean  plants. 

Soil  samples  were  taken  at  three  depth--0  to  6  inches,  12  to  18  inches,  and  24 
to  30  inches.   Tests  were  made  for  pH,  available  phosphorus  (Pi),  acid-soluble  phos- 
phorus (P2) ,  and  available  potassium. 

Soil  tests  showed  that  about  one-third  of  the  fields  were  in  need  of  build-up, 
one-third  were  about  at  suggested  goals,  and  one-third  were  above  goals  believed  to 
be  necessary.   Some  surprisingly  high  tests  were  found--for  example,  potassium  above 
2,000  pounds  per  acre  when  300  pounds  is  considered  high,  and  available  phosphorus 
above  300  when  70  is  high  for  any  soil.   Future  research  will  be  needed  to  determine 
whether  there  are  magnesium  or  zinc  problems  on  such  soils.   A  few  fields  with  low 
to  marginal  levels  of  zinc,  boron,  copper,  or  magnesium  were  identifed,  but  no  gener- 
al problems  on  either  a  state  or  area  basis  were  found.   Followup  field  trials  failed 
to  show  responses  in  yield. 

In  a  related  program,  specific  crop  yields  and  soil  productivity  indexes  have 
been  calculated  for  389  soil  types  in  the  state.   This  information  is  widely  used  by 
persons  involved  in  agriculture,  ranging  from  farm  operators  and  managers  to  public 
officials.   The  productivity  indexes  are  especially  useful  in  evaluating  soil  and 
economic  relationships  as  in  land  appraisal. 


159 


NUTRITION  AND  CLIMATIC  STRESS 


A  research  project  carried  out  originally  for  the  Armed  Forces  Institute  was  reported 
in  full  in  a  publication  entitled  "Nutrition  and  Climatic  Stress  with  Particular  Ref- 
erence to  Man,"  published  by  Charles  G  Thomas,  Springfield,  Illinois,  in  1951,  by 
H.H.  Mitchell  and  Marjorie  Edman  (234  pages).   A  brief  summary  follows. 

A  cold  environment  definitely  increases  the  caloric  requirements  of  man  in  pro- 
portion to  its  severity.  Illinois  experiments  proved  definitely  that  a  high-carbohy- 
drate diet,  approximating  closely  what  would  be  considered  a  typical  American  diet, 
is  superior  to  one  that  is  top-heavy  in  its  proportion  of  protein.   Some  evidence 
was  found  that  decreasing  the  intervals  between  meals  or  consumption  of  snacks  be- 
tween meals  may  be  beneficial. 

Direct  experimentation  on  human  subjects,  supplemented  by  observation  in  the 
field,  showed: 

1.  Energy  requirements  are  less  in  a  hot  climate  than  in  a  temperate  climate. 

2.  Water  requirements  in  a  hot  climate  are  definitely  increased  as  much  as  four 
or  five  times.   During  intense  sweating,  thirst  is  not  an  adequate  guide  to  water 
requirements . 

3.  The  salt  (NaCl)  requirements  in  a  hot  climate  may  be  greatly  increased  un- 
der conditions  of  profuse  sweating,  to  5  to  7  times  what  they  are  under  nonstress 
conditions. 

4.  No  evidence  was  found  to  suggest  that  modification  of  the  diet  in  terms  of 
protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat  improved  heat  tolerance. 

The  effects  of  altitude  on  animal  metabolism  are  due  predominantly  to  a  dimin- 
ished partial  pressure  of  oxygen  in  the  inspired  and  alveolar  air.   The  anoxia  thus 
produced  clearly  depresses  mental  faculties,  acuity  of  sensory  impressions,  the  will 
to  work,  and  work  capacity. 

The  ingestion  of  carbohydrates,  as  compared  with  protein  foods,  immediately  be- 
fore and  during  flight  to  altitude  increases  mental  efficiency,  neuromuscular  coordi- 
nation, the  capacity  for  muscular  work,  the  field  of  peripheral  vision,  and  the  acuity 
of  vision  in  dim  light.   It  also  decreases  the  severity  of  decompression  sickness. 
Candy  snacks,  preferably  sugar  candy,  might  well  be  provided  for  prolonged  flights. 


160 


PIPELINE  MILKING 


Pipelines  in  connection  with  machine  milking  in  stanchion  barns  were  used  in  a  number 
of  installations  during  the  1940' s,  but  the  labor  saved  by  their  use  was  offset  by 
the  time  required  to  dismantle,  clean,  sanitize,  and  reassemble  the  pipe  after  each 
use,  and  the  system  never  became  popular.   Researchers  M.H.  Alexander,  W.O.  Nelson, 
and  E.E.  Ormiston  in  1950  undertook  to  find  suitable  methods  of  cleaning  the  pipe  in 
position  without  dismantling.   In  the  first  test,  two  lines  of  pipe  each  200  feet  long 
were  installed  in  the  college  dairy  barn.   One  of  stainless  steel  was  used  from  March 
11  to  September  2  without  dismantling.   The  other,  of  Pyrex  glass,  was  used  from  Sep- 
tember 5  to  September  25.   Bacteriological  analyses  covered  the  entire  period  of  sev- 
en months,  and  indicated  clearly  that  milk  of  acceptable  quality  could  be  produced  by 
such  a  system.   In  a  later  test  comparing  stainless  steel  and  flexible  plastic  pipe- 
lines, milk  of  satisfactory  bacteriological  quality  was  produced  throughout  the  ex- 
perimental period  of  six  weeks  in  two  different  barns,  with  each  type  of  pipe. 

Proper  cleaning  procedures  are  important,  and  the  routine  recommended  as  a  re- 
sult of  these  tests  can  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  Immediately  after  milking,  thoroughly  rinse  the  pipeline  for  5  minutes  with 
clean  water  at  approximately  90°  to  100°  F.   This  will  clear  the  pipe  of 
milk. 

2.  Wash  with  a  hot  (140°  to  145°)  synthetic  alkaline  detergent  solution  for 
about  20  minutes.  (A  synthetic  acid  detergent  should  be  used  after  each 
fourth  milking.)   Detergents  should  be  adapted  to  the  hardness  of  the  water. 

3.  Sanitize  the  pipe  by  rinsing  for  5  minutes  with  a  chlorine  solution  (200 
parts  per  million)  at  90°  to  100°  F. 

4.  Immediately  before  each  milking,  rinse  with  a  similar  chlorine  solution. 

The  200-foot  pipeline  was  the  first  such  installation  in  a  college  dairy  barn 

anywhere  in  the  country;  and  the  demonstration  that  the  three  different  kinds  of  pipe 

could  be  cleaned  in  position,  without  dismantling,  showed  the  way  to  what  later  be- 
came common  practice  in  U.S.  dairying. 


161 


PLANT  NUTRIENTS  USED  ON  CROPS  AND  PASTURES  IN  ILLINOIS 


The  total  acreage  of  harvested  crops  in  Illinois  including  unimproved,  open,  and  per- 
manent pasture  acres  declined  from  25.2  million  acres  in  1954  to  23.5  million  in  1964. 
This  decrease  of  1 . 7  million  acres  harvested  was  accompanied  by  an  increase  of  3.2 
million  acres  fertilized  (from  7.9  million  in  1954  to  11.1  million  acres  in  1964), 
increasing  the  percentage  of  harvested  acres  fertilized  from  31  percent  to  47  percent, 
For  individual  crops  the  percentage  of  harvested  acres  fertilized  in  1964  was:   corn 
86,  soybeans  12,  wheat  85,  oats  (estimated)  11,  hay  and  cropland  pasture  8,  fruits 
and  vegetables  (estimated)  96,  and  other  crops  57. 

Primary  crops  such  as  corn,  soybeans,  and  wheat  are  increasing  both  in  acres 
harvested  and  in  the  percentage  of  harvested  acres  fertilized,  while  less  important 
crops  are  declining  in  harvested  acres  and  to  some  extent  in  the  percentage  of  har- 
vested acres  fertilized. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  1964  67  pounds  of  nitrogen,  21.6  pounds  of  phosphorus, 
and  33.3  pounds  of  potash  were  applied  per  fertilized  acre  of  all  cropland  and  pas- 
ture in  Illinois.   The  greatest  increase  occurred  in  the  use  of  nitrogen,  over  three 
times  as  much  per  fertilized  acre  in  1964  as  in  1954,  mostly  on  corn. 

This  study  was  made  in  1967,  by  W.A.  Elder  and  Roy  Van  Arsdall  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agricultural  Economics,  as  part  of  a  national  project  of  the  Economic  Research 
Service  and  the  Statistical  Reporting  Service,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
cooperation  with  the  state  agricultural  experiment  stations. 


162 


RED  STELE  ROT  OF  STRAWBERRIES 


One  of  the  serious  hazards  in  growing  high-quality  strawberries  in  Illinois  in  the 
1930's  was  root  rot,  and  in  particular  a  form  known  as  red  stele,  sometimes  called 
brown  stele.   It  was  first  seen  in  Edgar  County  and  led  to  a  reduction  of  commercial 
plantings  from  about  1,000  acres  to  less  than  500  acres,   H.W.  Anderson  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Horticulture  found  that  the  cause  of  red  stele  rot  is  one  of  the  downy  mil- 
dews, Phy tophthera ,  a  type  of  fungus  causing  "blights"  of  many  plants. 

A.S.  Colby  and  H.W.  Anderson  undertook  an  intensive  series  of  studies  in  an  ef- 
fort to  locate  varieties  that  were  both  resistant  to  the  fungus  and  suitable  for  com- 
mercial production.   In  the  meantime,  the  only  practical  method  of  avoiding  serious 
infection  was  to  make  new  plantings  of  disease-free  plants  in  fields  where  no  straw- 
berries had  previously  been  grown. 

By  1935  three  varieties  showing  resistance  had  been  found--Aberdeen,  Mastodon, 
and  Red  Heart--but  only  Aberdeen  was  suited  to  conditions  in  Edgar  County.  Unfortu- 
nately, Aberdeen  was  found  to  be  quite  susceptible  to  leaf  spot,  which  often  made  it 
necessary  to  spray  for  control  of  this  disease.   By  1938  this  disease  had  been  re- 
ported widely  distributed  in  eastern  areas  of  the  country  where  many  of  the  straw- 
berry plants  used  by  Illinois  growers  were  being  raised. 

The  problem  was  studied  by  investigators  at  other  stations,  including  New  Jer- 
sey, where  a  new  Aberdeen  cross  named  Pathfinder  was  developed.   In  1941,  Dr.  Colby 
made  a  cross  between  Redstar  and  Pathfinder  which  showed  considerable  resistance,  and 
from  this  cross  he  eventually  developed  a  highly  resistant  variety,  Vermilion,  the 
first  variety  to  be  named  as  a  result  of  the  long  breeding  program.  In  April,  1950, 
it  was  released  to  a  few  growers  in  Edgar  County  and  became  rather  widely  used. 

Parallel  work  continued  at  several  other  stations,  and  it  was  not  long  until 
growers  had  a  number  of  varieties  to  choose  from,  all  resistant  to  red  stele  rot  as 
well  as  to  leaf  spot. 


163 


RESIDENT  INSTRUCTION 


A  book  published  in  1957,  "Why  Teach?,"  gave  the  views  of  more  than  100  men  and  wo- 
men in  many  different  fields  on  teaching,  the  influence  of  teachers  on  their  own 
lives,  or  the  satisfactions  to  be  derived  from  teaching  as  a  profession.  Here  are 
a  few  thoughts  from  the  book: 

Paul  G.  Hoffman,  Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Studebaker-Packard  Corporation:   "The 
founders  of  our  Republic,  particularly  Thomas  Jefferson,  were  the  first  to  sense  the 
close  relationship  between  education  and  good  citzenship.   They  felt  in  their  bones 
that  their  audacious  experiment  in  government  could  succeed  only  if  their  constituents 
were  reasonably  literate.   That  is  why  school  districts  were  being  organized  and 
schools  set  up  even  before  our  first  Congress  met.   With  the  passing  of  the  years 
and  the  growing  complexity  of  government,  the  need  for  a  better  and  better  educated 
citizenry  has  become  increasingly  clear.   It  is  not  an  overstatement  to  say  that 
our  very  survival  as  a  nation  depends  on  whether  our  children  are  well  taught.   The 
greatest  single  threat  to  our  way  of  life  is  ignorance." 

Frank  G.  Dickey,  President,  University  of  Kentucky:   "1  know  of  no  other  group 
in  our  society  that  can  equal  teachers  in  their  loyalty  to  the  finer  things  of  life, 
in  their  interest  in  preserving  the  worthwhile  things  from  the  past,  and  in  the  dis- 
covery of  the  new  ideas  that  will  make  our  future  even  greater.   Finally,  teachers 
are  doing  more  than  any  other  group  to  help  our  youth  understand  and  appreciate  the 
liberty  and  the  freedom  which  is  ours.   Teaching  is  indeed  a  proud  profession." 

William  Harrison  Fetridge,  Executive  Vice-President  of  Popular  Mechanics   Maga- 
zine:  "What  greater  challenge  can  a  person  have  than  the  responsibility  imposed  by 
the  profession  of  the  teacher?  What  greater  stimulation  can  a  person  possess  than 
the  knowledge  that  he  has  helped  shape  other  people's  lives  and  destinies?  And 
what  greater  satisfaction  can  there  be  than  knowing  one  has  provided  the  tools  and 
the  standards  by  which  others  live?" 

David  Dodds  Henry,  President,  University  of  Illinois:   "To  live  with  books  and 
ideas,  to  associate  with  young  and  old  who  prize  the  intellectual  and  spiritual,  to 
be  part  of  a  mission  dedicated  to  improvement  in  the  lot  of  men  and  helping  people 
to  live  fuller,  richer  lives,  to  participate  in  the  discovery  of  new  ideas--in  short, 
to  be  a  teacher--is  to  accept  a  way  of  life  honored  and  rewarding  in  human  values, 
outcomes  that  give  worthy  purpose  and  satisfying  meaning  to  daily  endeavor." 

Joel  H.  Hildebrand,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  University  of  California:   "In  the 
course  of  my  half  century  of  teaching  I  have  had  before  me  a  total  of  not  less  than 
40,000  students,  from  freshman  to  post-doctoral  Ph.D.'s,  and  now,  wherever  I  go,  I 
am  greeted  by  men  and  women  who  indicate,  in  one  way  or  another,  that  they  think 
I  contributed  something  to  their  minds  and  character.   I  have  come  to  realize,  with 
the  passage  of  years,  that  the  fruits  of  one's  labors  are  likely  to  live  longer  in 
the  lives  of  his  students  than  in  his  scientific  discoveries.   The  students  become 
part  of  the  stream  of  life;  his  publications  gradually  become  obsolete." 

Alice  K.  Leopold,  Women's  Bureau  Director,  and  Assistant  to  the  Secretary  of 
Labor  for  Women's  Affairs:   "Everyone  who  works  at  a  job  he  likes  and  does  well 
contributes  to  the  well-being  of  all  of  us.   But  some  jobs  are  indispensable  to  our 


164 


very  survival.   Teaching,  like  nursing,  is  one  of  those.   Unless  our  children  learn 
how  to  read,  write,  and  calculate,  they  cannot  live  without  constant  help  from  others. 
Unless  they  learn  how  to  develop  their  talents  and  overcome  their  handicaps,  they 
cannot  work  effectively  and  harmoniously  with  others  for  the  common  good.   Unless 
they  learn  from  the  preceding  generation  the  heritage  of  the  past,  they  cannot  add 
to  our  progress." 

Frances  Parkinson  Keyes,  novelist,  travel  writer,  and  public  speaker:   "One 
of  my  most  inspiring  experiences  was  visiting  the  University  of  Salamanca  in  Spain, 
where  the  classroom  has  been  in  use  for  more  than  five  hundred  years,  and  the  same 
rough  benches  still  serve  the  students  of  today  that  were  used  by  men  who  studied 
under  the  justly  famous  Fray  Luis  deLeon,  whose  spirit  continues  to  permeate  the 
place.   Without  any  of  the  equipment  which  the  average  small -town  public  school  in 
our  country  would  consider  essential,  this  university  has  not  only  survived,  but 
flourished,  because  it  has  been  illumined  by  the  knowledge  and  enthusiasm  of  its 
teachers. " 

Background  for  Early  Agricultural   Education 

Early  American  agriculture  was  largely  subsistence  farming.   Each  family  had  a 
few  cows  to  provide  milk  for  the  family  and  cream  for  churning  butter,  with  any 
surplus  skim  milk  going  to  feed  the  pigs;  enough  hogs  to  provide  a  winter's  supply 
of  ham,  bacon,  spare  ribs,  and  salt  pork;  a  flock  of  chickens  to  furnish  the  family's 
need  for  eggs  and  poultry  meat  including  eggs  to  trade  at  the  country  store  for 
such  staples  as  flour  and  sugar  and  any  other  commodities  not  easily  produced  on 
the  farm;  and  two  to  four  horses  to  furnish  farm  power  and  any  necessary  transpor- 
tation.  Crops  consisted  chiefly  of  hay  for  the  horses  and  cattle,  corn  to  feed  the 
pigs  and  chickens,  oats  for  horse  feed,  and  perhaps  some  wheat,  together  with  a 
sizable  vegetable  garden,  some  grapevines,  berry  bushes,  and  a  strawberry  patch, 
plus  apple,  pear,  plum  and  possibly  peach  trees.   There  was  usually  a  farm  shop, 
often  containing  a  forge  and  anvil,  in  which  repairs  to  simple  farm  equipment  could 
be  made. 

Farmers  tended  to  be  skeptical  of  the  value  of  "book  learning"  as  applied  to 
agriculture;  and  it  was  only  after  farm  enterprises  grew  larger,  and  operators  were 
faced  with  such  problems  as  inroads  of  insect  pests,  plant  and  animal  diseases,  and 
decreasing  soil  fertility,  to  which  they  needed  answers,  that  they  began  to  think 
about  sending  their  sons  to  an  agricultural  college.   And  for  a  long  time  the  em- 
phasis was  on  "practical"  agriculture,  with  little  or  no  thought  given  to  such  things 
as  price  cycles;  graded  eggs,  wheat,  or  livestock;  plant  and  animal  breeding;  or 
soil  erosion. 

Development   of  Teaching  in   College  of  Agriculture 

In  the  university  itself,  the  "science"  of  agriculture  was  slow  to  gain  recog- 
nition.  Until  Dean  Davenport  came  to  Illinois  in  1895,  insisting  as  a  condition  of 
employment  that  his  title  be  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  the  senior  title  had 
been  Professor  of  Agriculture.   No  departments  were  recognized  until  1899,  and  as 
late  as  1916  there  were  only  five--Agronomy,  Animal  Husbandry,  Dairy  Husbandry, 
Horticulture,  and  Household  Science.   Farm  Organization  and  Management  was  esta- 
blished in  1917,  and  Farm  Mechanics  in  1921. 

Most  departments  in  the  college  of  agriculture  can  be  considered  "spin-offs" 
from  other  long-established  departments  in  Liberal  Arts  and  Science.   Thus  Physics 
includes  Mechanics,  and  leads  naturally  to  Farm  Mechanics  and  then  to  Agricultural 
Engineering.  Geology  leads  to  Soils ,  Soil  Chemistry,  Soil  Fertility,  Soil  Management 


165 


and   Soil   Classification,   all  of  which   involve  Soil  Physics.   Biology  divides 
naturally  into  Botany  and  Zoology.   Botany  must  include  Plant  Classification,  Plant 
Breeding,  Plant  Physiology,  and  Plant  Pathology,  just  as  Zoology  encompasses  Ani- 
mal Breeding,  Animal  Physiology,  Anatomy,  Animal  Pathology,  and  the  various  phases 
of  Animal  Management,  including  Animal  Nutrition. 

For  the  college  administration,  all  of  this  leads  directly  to  the  question  of 
what  curricula  should  be  set  up  and  what  specific  courses  should  be  offered.   Then 
there  are  the  more  difficult  questions  as  to  which  courses  should  be  required  of 
all  students  and  which  should  be  elective;  as  well  as  what  specialized  curricula, 
if  any,  should  be  offered  for  students  who  want  to  prepare  for  work  in  certain  spe- 
cial fields. 


Curricula   in  Agriculture 

For  many  years,  teaching  in  the  college  was  carried  out  under  a  single  curriculum 
commonly  called  the  General  Curriculum  in  Agriculture  and  required  for  the  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Agriculture.   In  the  catalog  of  1899-1900,  when  depart- 
ments were  first  recognized,  the  aims  and  scope  of  the  curriculum  were  set  out  as 
follows : 

"The  College  of  Agriculture  offers  students  an  education  which  fits  them  for  the 
business  of  farming,  and  at  the  same  time  furnishes  them  a  means  of  culture.   This 
education  is,  therefore,  partly  technical  and  partly  cultural.   Its  end  is  the  train- 
ing of  students  not  only  to  be  good  farmers,  but  good  citizens  and  successful  men. 
In  other  words,  it  seeks  to  provide  an  education  suitable  to  the  needs  of  rural 
people  in  a  democracy. 

"The  technical  portion  of  the  course  offered  in  the  College  of  Agriculture  consti- 
tutes about  one-half  of  the  whole  work.   In  studying  these  technical  subjects  the 
aim  is  not  so  much  to  teach  rules  of  practice  as  to  make  plain  the  principles  of 
agricultural  science.   Of  the  remaining  portion  of  the  course,  twenty  hours  are 
prescribed  in  the  sciences.   Since  the  technical  subjects  are  also  of  a  scientific 
nature,  the  course  as  a  whole  is  essentially  scientific,  rather  than  literary;  yet 
the  College  is  mindful  of  the  educational  importance  of  history,  literature,  lan- 
guage, and  the  political  sciences,  and  reasonable  attention  is,  therefore,  given 
to  these  subjects." 

The  requirements  for  graduation  with  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Agri- 
culture were  listed  as  the  completion  of: 

1.   Studies  in  the  prescribed  list: 


2. 


Agronomy 

15  hours 

Horticulture 

8  hours 

Animal  Husbandry 

10 

Military 

5 

Botany  or  Zoology 

10 

Physical  Training 

Chemistry 

10 

Men 

7H 

Dairy  Husbandry 

2 

Women 

3 

Economics 

2 

Rhetoric 

6 

English 

5 

Veterinary  Science 

2h 

20  semester  hours  form 

elective  list 

A: 

Agronomy 

Animal  Husbandry 

Da  iry  Husbandry 

Horticulture 

Veterinary  Science 


2%  to  45^  hours 
2h   to  2712  hours 
2\   to  21\   hours 
2  to  72  hours 
5  to  25  hours 


166 


3.  Subjects  aggregating  29  hours  of  free  electives  anywhere  in  the  university  not 

in  the  prescribed  list  or  List  A. 

4.  An  acceptable  thesis  upon  an  approved  course  of  investigation,  5  to  10  hours 

allowed  according  to  the  nature  of  the  subject 

Majors  were  not  recognized  or  recorded  as  such,  but  beginning  in  1905-06  there 
was  included  in  the  catalog  a  list  of  "Suggested  Courses  for  Students  Specializing 
in  Dairy  Husbandry."   In  1906-07  a  similar  list  was  added  for  student  specializing 
in  Horticulture,  and  in  1907-08  a  list  for  students  specializing  in  Animal  Husbandry. 

Other  Curricula 

For  several  years,  the  only  additional  curriculum  was  the  one  in  Household  Science 
leading  to  the  degree  of  B.S.  in  Household  Science. 

In  1907-08  a  curriculum  in  Landscape  Gardening  (later  Landscape  Architecture) 
was  added.   The  next  to  appear  was  Floriculture  in  1909-10;  and  in  1910-11  there 
was  added  a  General  Four-Year  Course  for  Teachers  of  Agriculture  leading  to  the  B.S. 
degree  in  Agriculture. 

A  curriculum  in  Farm  Organization  and  Management  was  added  in  1915-16;  and  one 
in  Interior  Decoration  was  added  in  Home  Economics  in  1917-18.   In  1918-19  a  new 
curriculum  in  Teacher  Training  was  introduced  for  students  who  wanted  to  qualify  as 
teachers  of  vocational  agriculture  under  the  Smith-Hughes  Act. 

Beginning  in  1922-23,  a  curriculum  in  Nutrition  and  Dietetics  was  offered  in 
Home  Economics.   In  the  same  year  a  statement  regarding  Teacher  Training  read  as 
follows:   "Students  applying  for  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Agricultural 
Education  must  take  the  first  two  years  in  the  College  of  Agriculture  as  required 
for  a  B.S.  in  Agriculture,  and  the  last  two  years  in  the  College  of  Education." 

Curriculum  Changes 

The  first  major  changes  in  the  curriculum  in  General  Agriculture  came  in  1923-24, 
based  on  recommendations  made  by  the  college  Committee  on  Courses  and  Curricula, 
which  had  studied  the  problem  for  more  than  a  year  under  the  chairmanship  of  Professor 
H.B.  Dorner.  Prescribed  agricultural  courses  were  increased  from  23  hours  to  33,  with 
agriculture  prescribed  as  electives  reduced  from  36  hours  to  23.  Total   nonagriculture 
required  was  increased  from  57  hours  to  63,  with  free  electives  reduced  from  14  hours 
to  11. 

Group  A  electives  (minimum  23  hours)  included  all  courses  offered  by  the  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  other  than  those  prescribed. 

Group  B  (minimum  5  hours)  included  Physics,  3  hours;  Botany  7a,  5  hours,  Botany 
27a,  5  hours;  Mathematics  3  or  2,  5  or  3  hours;  and  Zoology  1,  5  hours. 

Group  C  (minimum  6  hours)  included  English  20,  4  hours,  Public  Speaking  1  and 

2,  4  hours;  Rhetoric  10,  2  hours;  American  History  3b,  3  hours;  Sociology  1  or  7, 

3  or  2  hours;  Psychology  1,  4  hours;  Philosophy  1  or  2 ,  3  hours;  Education  10,  3 
hours;  and  Education  25,  3  hours. 

In  1927-28  the  hours  of  required  agriculture  in  the  General  Curriculum  were 
reduced  from  56  to  49,  Groups  B  and  C  (nonagriculture  electives)  were  considerably 
enlarged,  and  the  number  of  free  electives  increased  to  17  hours. 

In  1931  the  Department  of  Landscape  Architecture  was  transferred  from  Agricul- 
ture to  the  College  of  Fine  and  Applied  Arts  and  several  changes  were  instituted 


167 


in  the  curriculum  leading  to  the  degree  of  B.S.  in  Agriculture, 
ment  read  as  follows: 


The  catalog  state- 


"All  students  except  those  in  the  special  curricula  in  home  economics  and  floricul- 
ture are  required  to  take  the  same  work  during  the  freshman  year  and  part  of  the 
sophomore,  junior,  and  senior  years.   This  work  gives  the  student  a  conception  of 
farm  practices  and  an  insight  into  the  technical  branches  of  agriculture,  such  as 
animal  and  dairy  husbandry,  horticulture,  farm  crops,  farm  mechanics,  and  buildings, 
and  leaves  a  large  part  of  the  junior  and  senior  years  open  for  elective  studies." 

The  list  and  hours  of  prescribed  subjects  included: 

3 


Accountancy  la 
Agr.  Extension 
Agronomy  25,  28 
Animal  Husbandry  1,  21 
Bacteriology  52 
Botany  5 

Chemistry  1  (or  2),  5, 
Dairy  Husbandry  24a  or 
Economics  1  or  2 
Entomology  1 


32 
24b 


Farm  Mechanics  1 
%  Farm  Management  1 

8  Geology  44 

5  Horticulture  la,  lb 

3  Hygiene  5 

3  Landscape  Architecture  62 

13  or  11      Military  Drill  and  Theory 
3  Physical  Education 

5  or  3       Rhetoric  1,  2 
3 


Zoology  15 
Total  prescribed  subjects  74%  to  78%  hours 


Agriculture  prescribed 
Agriculture  from  Group  A 

Total  agriculture  required 

Nonagriculture  prescribed 
to  be  added  from  Group  B 
to  be  added  from  Group  C 
Total  nonagriculture  required 


Free  electives 


26%  hours 

20% 

47 

hours 

48  to  52 
8 
6 

62 

to  66 

hours 

17 

to  21 

hours 

Total  hours   130 


Beginning  in  1932-33,  the  4  hours  of  Military  Drill  and  Theory  and  the  2  hours 
in  Physical  Education  were  no  longer  included  in  the  total,  even  though  a  university 
requirement,  and  the  free  electives  were  reduced  by  4  hours  to  make  a  total  of  120 
semester  hours,  though  actually  126  hours  were  required  for  graduation. 

Since  1933-34  a  curriculum  in  Agricultural  Engineering  leading  to  the  Degree 
of  B.S.  in  Agricultural  Engineering  has  been  administered  by  the  College  of  Engineer- 
ing with  the  cooperation  of  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Engineering. 

A  two-year  pre-forestry  curriculum  was  introduced  in  1938-39  when  the  Depart- 
ment of  Forestry  was  established.   It  was  designed  to  prepare  young  men  to  enter 
a  school  of  professional  forestry  with  two  years  of  advanced  standing.   It  was  con- 
tinued until  1958,  when  the  four-year  programs  in  Forest  Production  and  Wood  Tech- 
nology were  approved. 

The  curriculum  in  Dairy  Technology  leading  to  the  degree  of  B.S.  in  Dairy  Tech- 
nology was  introduced  in  1939-40. 

First  listing  of  the  curriculum  in  Vocational  Agriculture,  leading  to  the  degree 
of  B.S.  in  Vocational  Agriculture,  was  in  1941-42 
several  Special  Programs  of  Study  in  Agriculture: 

Pre-Theological  Program 

Pre-Veterinary  Program 


In  that  year  there  were  also  listed 


168 


Five-Year  Program  in  Agriculture  and  Engineering,  in  which  a  student  could  earn 
degrees  in  both  Agriculture  and  Agricultural  Engineering. 

Six- Year  Program  in  Agriculture  and  Law,  leading  to  the  degrees  of  B.S.  in 
Agriculture  and  Bachelor  of  Laws  at  the  end  of  six  years. 

A  substantial  change  in  the  Curriculum  in  General  Agriculture  was  made  in  1940- 
41,  when  the  total  required  hours  for  graduation  went  back  to  130  semester  hours. 
The  new  breakdown  became: 

Agriculture  prescribed  28  hours 

Nonagriculture  prescribed  46  to  50  hours 

Agricultural  electives  (Group  1)  21  hours 

Nonagriculture  electives  (Group  2)  8  hours 

Free  electives  23  to  27  hours 

Total  required     130 

Group  1--A11  courses  offered  by  the  College  of  Agriculture  other  than  those  pre- 
scribed (minimum  21  hours). 

Group  2--Minimum  of  8  hours,  in  addition  to  prescribed  courses,  to  be  selected  from 
English  12,  13,  20a,  or  20b  (2  or  4  hours);  French  la  and  lb  (8  hours); 
Geography  1,  2,  14  (3  or  5  hours);  German  1  and  2  (8  hours);  History  la, 
lb,  32  or  3b  (3  or  4  hours);  Landscape  Architecture  62  (2  hours);  Philoso- 
phy 1  or  2  (3  hours);  Political  Science  la,  lb  or  16  (2  or  3  hours);  Psy- 
chology 1  (4  hours);  Rhetoric  10  (2  hours);  Sociology  1  (3  hours);  Speech 
1  (3  hours). 

The  curriculum  in  Home  Economics  Education  was  added  in  1944-45,  and  curricula 
in  both  Food  Science  and  Restaurant  Management  were  introduced  in  1947. 

In  1948,  a  new  curriculum  in  Agricultural  Science  was  developed  to  meet  the  spe- 
cial needs  of  students  who  planned  either  to  enter  professional  fields  or  to  do  gradu- 
ate work  for  an  advanced  degree.   The  only  specific  requirements  were  those  few  which 
were  universitywide,  such  as  two  courses  in  Rhetoric  and  the  specified  Physical  Edu- 
cation,  This  permitted  the  student  and  his  adviser  to  plan  a  succession  of  courses  to 
meet  Specific  needs.   General  guidelines  in  the  form  of  minima  for  biological ,  physical, 
and  social  sciences  were  set,  depending  upon  the  general  area  of  each  student's  in- 
terest, and  there  was  a  required  minimum  of  30  semester  hours  of  technical  agriculture. 
In  order  to  continue  in  this  curriculum  a  student  required  a  grade  average  at  least 
midway  between  "B"  and  "C . " 

In  1957,  the  curriculum  long  known  as  General  Agriculture  was  modified  by  recog- 
nizing, in  addition  to  the  core  in  general  agriculture,  six  majors  -  Agricultural 
Economics,  Agricultural  Mechanization,  Agronomy,  Animal  Science,  Dairy  Science,  and 
Horticulture.   These  new  majors  permitted  greater  differentiation  in  course  require- 
ments according  to  specialized  areas  of  agricultural  interest.   Even  so,  many  students 
chose  to  enroll  in  the  core  curriculum  and  shift  to  a  field  of  major  interest  in  the 
sophomore  year. 

In  1959,  as  a  result  of  increased  stress  on  agribusiness,  a  new  curriculum  in 
Agricultural  Industries  was  established.  This  included  several  courses  offered  by 
the  College  of  Commerce  and  Business  Administration. 

In  1961,  a  curriculum  in  Agricultural  Communications  was  inaugurated;  and  in  1963 
the  pre-veterinary  curriculum  was  re-established.   Expansion  of  the  junior  college  sys- 
tem in  Illinois  during  the  next  few  years  made  pre-veterinary  work  available  in  many 
places  in  the  state,  and  in  1971  the  pre-veterinary  programs  in  both  Agriculture  and 
Liberal  Arts  and  Sciences  were  cancelled. 


169 


Courses   Taught   by  Correspondence 

During  a  period  of  four  years,  from  1936  to  1939,  four  different  undergraduate 
courses  in  agriculture  were  offered  by  correspondence.   These  were  designated: 

Agricultural  Economics  xl.   Introductory  Agricultural  Economics 
Agronomy  x25 .   Farm  Crops 

Dairy  Husbandry  x24a.   Elementary  Dairy  Production 
Horticulture  xl.   Introductory  Horticulture 

Correspondence  courses  throughout  the  university  are  equivalent  to  those  offered 
to  undergraduate  students  in  residence.   Credit  earned  by  correspondence  courses  in 
which  the  student  receives  grades  of  "C"  or  higher  can  be  applied,  up  to  certain 
specified  limits,  toward  meeting  the  requirements  for  graduation. 

Although  the  university  continues  to  offer  a  wide  selection  of  courses  by  cor- 
respondence, there  was  apparently  not  enough  demand  for  such  courses  in  agriculture 
to  warrant  their  continuance.   Only  Agronomy  x25  was  offered  in  1940,  and  no  courses 
have  been  offered  since. 

Teacher  Evaluation 

Perhaps  only  because  it  is  so  difficult  or  because  it  does  not  lend  itself  to 
exact  measurement  of  any  kind,  teacher  evaluation  is  most  often  an  account  of  a  per- 
sonal experience,  written  from  a  current  or  from  a  reflective  point  of  view.   Stu- 
dents, especially  at  the  high  school  and  college  levels,  are  exposed  to  a  great 
variety  of  teaching  and  teaching  methods,  some  excellent,  some  good,  and  some  not 
so  good.   In  spite  of  the  fact  that  most  of  their  experience  with  teaching  will 
have  been  on  the  receiving  end,  their  close  contact  with  teachers  gives  students  a 
certain  expertise  in  evaluation  that  is  not  equally  available  to  either  a  colleague 
in  the  profession  or  to  a  mere  observer  who  visits  classes. 

It  is  worth  noting  that  students  in  the  College  of  Agriculture,  acting  through 
the  student  honorary  organization  Alpha  Zeta,  have  chosen  each  year  since  1959  an 
"Outstanding  Instructor"  to  be  honored  at  the  time  of  the  All-Ag  Banquet  held  an- 
nually in  the  late  spring. 

Placement   of  Graduates 

Most  educational  institutions  feel  some  responsibility  for  helping  graduates 
obtain  employment,  though  few  would  maintain  that  it  is  up  to  the  college  or  uni- 
versity to  "place"  every  graduate  in  a  suitable  job.   The  College  of  Agriculture 
has  long  helped  in  this  regard  by  maintaining  contacts  with  potential  employers, 
and  by  scheduling  interviews  on  the  campus  between  industry  representatives  and 
graduating  seniors  toward  the  end  of  their  final  year.   Many  individual  faculty 
members  are  also  involved  in  this  process. 

The  Office  of  Resident  Instruction  has  for  many  years  conducted  an  annual  sur- 
vey of  new  graduates  to  determine  the  type  of  work  they  were  following,  together 
with  some  indication  of  remuneration.   In  addition,  a  continuing  survey  was  initi- 
ated in  the  1960's  in  which  information  was  solicited  from  all  five-year  and  ten- 
year  graduates. 

Periodic  surveys  have  also  been  conducted  of  all  living  graduates  in  order  to 
obtain  suggestions  and  criticisms  from  them  as  individuals  and  as  representatives 
of  business  and  industrial  organizations,  looking  toward  improvement  of  the  college 
offerings.  It  was  learned  early  that  two  principal  shortcomings  of  graduates  were 
in  the  area  of  oral  and  written  communication  and  in  a  comprehensive  understanding 
of  business.  This  resulted  in  the  addition  of  business-related  courses  to  several 
curricula. 


170 


Student  Enrollment 

Enrollment  in  the  College  of  Agriculture  did  not  reach  1,000  until  the  fall  of 
1914,  when  there  were  934  men  and  144  women  registered.   The  College  now  has  more 
than  10,000  graduates.   Yearly  enrollment  and  numbers  of  graduates  in  Agriculture 
and  Home  Economics  over  a  50-year  period  were  as  follows: 


Enrollment 

Graduates 

Year 

Men 

Women 

Agriculture 

Home 

Economics 

1921-22 

871 

165 

164 

19 

1926-27 

542 

155 

81 

24 

1931-32 

502 

195 

85 

24 

1936-37 

849 

494 

128 

73 

1941-42 

910 

551 

189 

116 

1946-47 

1 

,077 

358 

173 

68 

1951-52 

962 

417 

229 

77 

1956-57 

1 

,093 

435 

243 

78 

1961-62 

1 

,010 

456 

188 

93 

1966-67 

1 

,156 

536 

227 

98 

1971-72 

1 

,139 

717 

263 

121 

The  College  has  drawn  students  from  many  foreign  countries.   The  first  such 
student  to  graduate  was  Tunetara  Yamaou  from  Japan  in  1873,  and  the  second  was  P. 
Gannadius  from  Greece  in  1874.   There  were  no  more  until  1906.   From  1922  to  1969 
the  numbers  of  graduates  from  various  countries  were: 

China  22 

Nigeria  18 

Canada  15 

South  Africa  13 

Germany  9 

Philippines  8 

4  each  from  India,  Jamaica,  Kenya,  and  Lithuania. 

3  each  from  Colombia,  England,  Estonia,  Greece,  Israel,  Japan,  Poland  and 

Vietnam. 
2  each  from  Argentina,  Austria,  Bolivia,  Korea,  Mexico,  Peru,  Sierra  Leone, 

Switzerland,  Turkey,  and  Ukraine. 
One  each  from  Brazil,  Bulgaria,  Ethiopia,  Czechoslovakia,  Guatemala,  Haiti, 

Hungary,  Iran,  Italy,  Java,  Lebanon,  Netherlands,  Nicaraqua,  Nyasaland, 

Palestine,  Roumania,  Sweden,  Taiwan,  Tanzania,  Uganda,  Venezuela,   and 

Yugoslavia. 


171 


Graduate  students  have  come  from  more  than  fifty  different  countries  during  the 
50-year  period  1922-1972.   Countries  represented  by  ten  or  more  such  students  were: 


Country 


M.S. 


Ph.D. 


Country 


M.S. 


Ph.D. 


Australia 

6 

16 

Ireland 

7 

6 

Belgium 

9 

6 

Israel 

7 

9 

Canada 

20 

33 

Japan 

10 

9 

China 

25 

25 

Korea 

7 

3 

Egypt 

10 

13 

Nigeria 

8 

2 

England 

30 

17 

Philippines 

16 

16 

Germany 

7 

6 

South  Africa 

5 

5 

India 

110 

131 

Taiwan 

51 

28 

Iraq 

6 

4 

Thailand 

9 

5 

Other  countries  from  which  graduate  students  have  come  and  received  advanced 
degrees  include  Afghanistan  1,  Argentina  1,  Austria  4,  Brazil  6,  Burma  1,  Ceylon  1, 
Chile  4,  Colombia  4,  Costa  Rica  2,  Cyprus  1,  Denmark  5,  Ethiopia  6,  France  8,  Ghana  2, 
Greece  8,  Guiana  1,  Honduras  1,  Hong  Kong  1,  Hungary  1,  Indonesia  3,  Iran  6,  Italy  4 
Jamaica  6,  Jordan  4,  Kenya  1,  Latvia  1,  Lebanon  5,  Liberia  1,  Lithuania  1,  Mexico  5, 
Netherlands  7,  New  Zealand  1,  Norway  2,  Pakistan  8,  Panama  2,  Paraguay  2,    Peru  4, 
Poland  2,  Rhodesia  1,  Saudi  Arabia  1,  Sierra  Leone  2,  Scotland  4,  Spain  1,  Sweden 
1,  Switzerland  1,  Syria  1,  Turkey  5,  Uganda  2,  Uruguay  1,  Venezuela  3,  Vietnam  4, 
Wales  3,  and  Yugoslavia  2,    for  a  grand  total  of  831,  about  evenly  divided  between 
M.S.  and  Ph.D.  candidates. 


172 


ROOT  DEVELOPMENT  IN  CONTRASTING  ILLINOIS  SOILS 

The  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  soils,  extending  several  feet  deep  into  the 
profile,  affect  the  rooting  system  of  plants,  which  in  turn  influences  the  amount 
and  ease  of  nutrient  and  water  absorption.    One  result  of  this  is  that  by  careful 
examination  of  plant  roots  just  as  they  grow  in  the  soil,  it  is  possible  to  see 
why  some  soils  produce  so  much  better  crop  yields  than  do  others.   J.B.  i'ehrenbacher, 
B.W.  Ray,  and  J.I).  Alexander  made  this  kind  of  study  of  corn,  soybean,  wheat,  and 
meadow  roots  in  a  number  of  Illinois  soils.   By  inserting  a  monolith  tray  (4  x  12  x 
72  inches)  into  the  soil  directly  below  the  plant,  they  were  able  to  remove  both  the 
roots  and  the  surrounding  soil  intact.   The  soil  was  then  carefully  washed  away  from 
the  roots  so  that  they  could  be  studied  and  photographed. 

The  study  included  soils  ranging  from  moderately  permeable,  dark-colored  loess 
soils  such  as  Muscatine,  to  very  slowly  permeable,  light-colored,  high-sodium  soils 
such  as  Huey.   In  Muscatine  soil,  which  is  one  of  the  most  productive  in  the  state 
and  represents  one  of  the  best  root  environments,  corn  roots  penetrated  to  nearly 
72  inches.   By  contrast,  the  silty  clay  shale  found  at  28  inches  in  Derinda  soil, 
had  no  well-developed  soil  structure  and  was  very  slowly  permeable,  forming  an  ef- 
fective barrier  to  root  penetration.   As  another  example,  fertilized  Cisne  soil,  be- 
cause of  its  well-developed  B  horizon,  permitted  much  better  root  penetration  than 
did  the  same  soil  unfertilized. 

Soybeans  do  not  generally  root  as  deeply  as  corn,  but  in  other  respects  the 
trends  in  root  penetration  and  distribution  were  much  the  same  as  for  corn. 

Wheat  completes  its  growth  before  the  normally  hot,  dry  months  of  July  and  Au- 
gust, so  that  deep  root  penetration  is  probably  not  as  important  as  it  is  for  corn 
and  soybeans.   But  proper  fertilization  increased  root  penetration  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  in  Muscatine  soil,  wheat  roots  went  almost  as  deep  as  those  of  corn. 

Alfalfa  and  red  clover  roots  also  penetrated  deeply  in  Muscatine  soil  espe- 
cially following  adequate  fertilization.   These  plants  seldom  survived  on  unferti- 
lized Cisne  and  Huey  soils,  and  even  with  fertilization  they  did  not  root  very  deep- 
ly in  these  poorly  drained  soils.   Timothy  also  has  a  shallow  root  system. 


173 


ROW  SPACING  FOR  SOYBEANS 


Soon  after  soybeans  were  introduced  into  Illinois,  agronomists  at  the  Experiment 
Station  showed  that  yields  could  be  increased  by  planting  in  rows  closer  together 
than  the  standard  40-inch  spacing  used  for  corn.   Few  growers  adopted  the  narrow 
spacing  because  it  was  much  more  convenient  to  continue  use  of  the  standard  field 
equipment . 

In  1958  Illinois  agronomists  began  a  new  study  of  the  problem,  comparing  differ- 
ent soybean  varieties,  and  using  different  planting  dates  at  several  locations  in 
the  state,.   Beans  planted  in  rows  24  inches  apart  consistently  outyielded  those  grown 
in  rows  40  inches  apart  by  about  15  percent,  regardless  of  variety,  date  of  planting, 
or  seeding  rate. 

Differences  in  row  spacing  did  not  noticeably  affect  quality  or  chemical  com- 
position of  the  beans.   In  dry  seasons,  however,  height  of  plants  will  normally  be 
greater  with  wider  row  spacing.   Early-germinating  weeds  need  to  be  controlled  just 
as  carefully  when  rows  are  close  together  as  when  they  are  farther  apart,  but  late- 
germinating  weeds  are  likely  to  be  less  of  a  problem  with  narrow  spacing  because  the 
ground  surface  between  rows  will  be  more  completely  shaded. 

Growers  with  small  acreages  might  not  find  it  worth  while  to  make  the  retooling 
necessary  to  grow  more  rows  per  acre,  but  for  larger  acreages  it  is  an  effective 
way  of  increasing  yield  per  acre. 


174 


RURAL  ELECTRIFICATION  IN  ILLINOIS 


In  the  spring  of  1936  when  the  Rural  Electrification  Act  was  signed  into  law  by  Pres- 
ident Roosevelt,  approximately  16  percent  of  American  farms  had  access  to  electrical 
power,  an  increase  from  10  percent  in  1920.  By  contrast,  almost  all  Netherlands 
farms,  90  percent  of  those  in  Germany,  and  50  percent  of  those  in  Sweden  were  elec- 
trified.  Thiry  years  later,  after  the  expenditure  of  hundreds  of  millions  of  dol- 
lars, the  American  figure  had  increased  to  over  98  percent.   The  REA  program  called 
for  making  available  to  farmers  who  were  prepared  to  work  together  in  extending  elec- 
trical lines  to  their  properties,  35-year  loans  at  2  percent  interest.  These  systems 
were  to  be  jointly  owned,  controlled,  and  operated  by  the  participating  farmers. 

The  program  did  not  come  easily,  and  much  of  the  stimulus  for  it  was  generated 
in  Illinois.   In  1924  E.W.  Lehmann  and  his  staff  in  the  Department  of  Farm  Mechanics 
(later  to  become  Agricultural  Engineering) ,  in  cooperation  with  the  local  power  com- 
panies, set  up  a  three-year  study  in  rural  Tolono.   Ten  farms  were  wired  to  deter- 
mine whether  enough  electricity  would  be  used  to  make  such  installations  profitable 
for  both  the  farmers  and  the  utility  companies. 

During  the  first  year,  electrical  equipment  was  provided  free  of  charge  by  manu- 
facturers, with  an  option  to  purchase  after  the  first  year.  In  addition  to  lights, 
each  of  the  ten  families  was  given  the  use  of  a  refrigerator,  a  vacuum  cleaner,  and 
a  cream  separator.   Other  equipment  made  available  included  utility  motors,  dish- 
washers, food  mixers,  ranges,  grain  elevators,  and  buttermakers.   Most  of  the  house- 
hold appliances  were  then  considered  luxury  items  even  in  urban  areas. 

One  young  farm  woman,  Mrs.  Harry  Riefsteck,  became  so  enthusiastic  that  she 
helped  the  project  by  giving  talks  at  home  bureau  meetings  and  other  gatherings, 
telling  farm  women  about  her  experience  with  electricity  on  the  farm.   Farm  and 
electrical  magazines  published  her  articles,  and  radio  stations  called  on  her  for 
interviews. 

The  Tolono  experiment  demonstrated  beyond  any  doubt  that  there  was  a  place  for 
electricity  on  the  farm.   On  the  ten  test  farms,  only  draft  horses  and  tractors  were 
more  important  than  electricity  in  supplying  energy.   The  highest  monthly  total  ave- 
raged 278  kilowatt-hours  and  the  lowest  42;  at  that  time  average  monthly  household 
consumption  in  cities  was  50  kilowatt-hours.   Power  companies  became  convinced  that 
there  was  a  tremendous  potential  for  electric  power  on  farms.   But  even  with  the 
rate  concessions  that  they  were  willing  to  grant,  the  job  could  not  be  done  without 
huge  capital  investment  in  power  lines. 

Farmers  in  other  parts  of  Illinois  and  in  several  other  states  became  interested. 
With  help  from  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Association  and  the  National  Federation  of 
Farm  Bureaus,  a  bill  was  drafted  and  introduced  in  Congress,  resulting  in  the  Rural 
Electrification  Act  of  1936. 


175 


SLOPES  OF  ILLINOIS  WATERSHEDS  AND  SOIL  ASSOCIATION  AREAS 


An  important  feature  of  physical  land  conditions  is  the  average  percent  slope  for 
a  given  area.   A  sample  survey  by  the  Soil  Conservation  Service  in  cooperation  with 
the  Department  of  Agronomy,  for  which  mapping  was  completed  in  1962,  covered  nearly 
700,000  acres,  or  2  percent  of  the  land  area  of  the  state.   The  mapped  areas  con- 
sisted of  about  4,500  quarter-sections  selected  at  random  on  the  basis  of  three 
quarter-sections  for  each  legal   township  (36  square  miles) . 

Average  slope  was  calculated  by  counties,  by  watersheds,  and  by  soil  associa- 
tion areas.   Average  slopes  of  less  than  3  percent  (3  feet  of  vertical  change  in 
100  feet  of  distance)  were  recorded  for  25  counties: 


Boone 

DeKalb 

Iroquois 

Logan 

Piatt 

Champaign 

Douglas 

Kankakee 

McLean 

Saline 

Christian 

Edgar 

Kendall 

Macon 

Wabash 

Clinton 

Ford 

Lawrence 

Mason 

Wayne 

Cook 

Grundy 

Livingston 

Moultrie 

Will 

ercent  or 

high 

er  for  19 

counties: 

Adams 

Carroll 

Jackson 

Monroe 

Rock  Island 

Alexander 

Fulton 

Jersey 

Peoria 

Schuyler 

Brown 

Greene 

Jo  Daviess 

Pike 

Union 

Calhoun 

Hardin 

Johnson 

Pope 

Calhoun  County  had  the  steepest  slope  with  17.63  percent,  and  Douglas  the 
lowest  with  1.78  percent. 

By  watersheds,  the  steepest  slope  was  in  the  Ohio  River  area  with  10.11  per- 
cent, and  the  lowest  in  the  Iroquois  River  area  with  1.75  percent. 

Slope  figures  by  soil  association  areas  give  a  quite  different  picture  from 
the  county  or  watershed  analysis.   In  general,  the  dark-colored,  prairie-derived 
soil  association  areas  have  average  slopes  below  2.5  percent.   Sore  of  the  flattest 
land  in  the  state  occurs  in  association  F (Hoyleton-Cisne-Huey) ,  but  the  average  slope 
for  this  association  is  slightly  higher  than  that  for  association  B  (Sidell-Catlin- 
Flanagan- Drummer)  because  association  F  is  dissected  by  more  minor  streams  so  that 
numerous  small  areas  of  sloping  timbered  soil  are  included.   Slope  estimates  by 
county  are  therefore  more  useful  if  supplemented  by  information  about  the  pertinent 
soil  association  areas.   Specific  slope  information  is  included  in  many  of  the  lat- 
est soil  reports. 


176 


SOURCES  OF  SCOTCH  PINE  FOR  CHRISTMAS  TREE  PLANTATIONS 

Scotch  pine,  Pinus  sylvestris,    has  often  proved  disappointing  as  a  timber  tree  in 
North  America,  but  has  become  a  favorite  with  Christmas  tree  growers  because  of  the 
ease  with  which  it  can  be  sheared  to  produce  a  desirable  density  and  shape.   Because 
of  the  prospect  that  many  of  the  millions  of  Scotch  pine  being  planted  annually  would 
never  be  harvested  as  Christmas  trees  but  would  be  allowed  to  develop  into  low-grade 
forests,  the  North  Central  Regional  Tree  Improvement  Committee  (NC-51)  undertook  a 
study  in  which  the  performance  of  Scotch  pines  was  related  to  their  origin.   Three 
of  the  test  plantings,  involving  106  sources  ranging  from  Scotland  to  Siberia  and 
from  Spain  to  Turkey,  were  established  in  Illinois  in  1961. 

During  the  fifth  year  after  planting,  all  trees  were  individually  rated,  and 
twelve  sources  were  selected  as  being  intermediate  in  growth  rate  and  needle  length 
between  the  short-needled,  slowest-growing,  far-northern  sources  and  the  fastest- 
growing,  long-needled  Belgian  and  German  sources.   Fifth-year  heights  for  the  twelve 
intermediate  sources  averaged  from  3  to  5  feet.   By  contrast,  trees  from  northern 
Finland  and  central  Siberia  averaged  slightly  better  than  1  foot,  and  those  from 
central  European  sources  averaged  about  6  feet  in  height. 

Results  of  this  study  uphold  the  popular  belief  that  Spanish  trees  are  among 
the  best,  and  strongly  suggest  that  the  most  suitable  seed  origins  will  be  found 
along  the  southern  limits  of  the  species  range.   Trees  of  Balkan  and  Georgian  ori- 
gin have  dark  green  foliage,  are  somewhat  more  hardy  in  northern  Illinois,  and  may 
develop  into  better  timber  trees. 


177 


SOUTHERN  CORN  BLIGHT 


Southern  corn  blight,  which  caused  such  severe  losses  in  1970,  has  in  fact  been 
a  major  disease  in  tropical  and  subtropical  corn-growing  areas  of  the  world  for  a 
long  time  and  is  essentially  worldwide  in  its  distribution.  In  the  United  States 
it  was  first  described  in  Florida  in  1925,  but  was  of  minor  importance  until  1969 
for  the  simple  reason  that  most  inbred  lines  and  commercial  hybrids  produced  from 
them  were  resistant  to  the  common  type  of  the  fungus. 

The  disease  is  caused  by  a  fungus  known  in  the  conidial  stage  as  Helminthosporium 
maydis.      The  fungus  persists  in  crop  refuse  between  corn-growing  seasons,  where  it 
produces  spores  (conidia)  that  are  later  airborne.   When  they  land  on  corn  leaves, 
they  germinate  in  the  presence  of  moisture  and  penetrate  the  leaf,  either  directly 
through  the  cuticle  or  through  stomatal  openings.   Once  inside  the  leaf,  the  thread- 
like mycelium  spreads  through  the  cells,  killing  them.   After  the  leaf  tissue  is 
killed,  if  it  is  kept  moist  for  10  or  more  hours,  the  fungus  produces  thousands  of 
new  conidia  which  are  easily  dislodged  and  blown  through  the  air  to  initiate  new 
infections.   When  conditions  are  favorable,  the  entire  life  cycle  can  take  place  in 
as  few  as  60  hours,  so  that  the  whole  process  becomes  explosive. 

What  makes  the  problem  especially  significant  is  that  there  are  two  distinct 
races  of  the  fungus,  named  race  0  and  race  T  as  a  result  of  work  as  the  Illinois 
Station.   Race  T  is  the  more  destructive  and  is  pathogenic  only  for  corn  plants 
that  have  the  oms-T   cytoplasm  (cytoplasm  for  male  sterility).   Race  T  also  produces 
a  highly  specific  pathotoxin  in  infected  plants  as  well  as  in  laboratory  cultures. 
When  applied  to  roots  from  germinating  seeds,  the  pathotoxin  inhibits  the  growth 
of  susceptible  types  but  not  of  resistant  types,  and  plays  an  important  part  in 
disease  damage  to  susceptible  corn  plants. 

Race  T  also  has  a  higher  reproductive  rate  than  race  0  and  can  spread  rapidly 
in  the  field  when  conditions  are  favorable.   Climate  and  temperature  tend  to  limit 
the  spread  of  race  0,  so  that  only  rarely  does  it  appear  as  far  north  as  the  Corn 
Belt.   Race  T,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  seem  to  be  so  limited,  and  spread  rapidly 
northward  after  its  appearance  in  Florida  in  the  spring  of  1970. 

Prior  to  that  time  few  people  had  paid  much  attention  to  plant  cytoplasm,  the 
complex  liquid  substance  that  fills  every  living  plant  cell.   But  Illinois  research- 
ers Arthur  L.  Hooker  and  associates  had  already  studied  the  problem  and  established 
that  susceptibility  to  race  T  of  the  southern  corn  blight  fungus  in  the  United  States 
was  associated  with  a  particular  type  of  corn  cytoplasm,  called  cytoplasm  T.   For- 
tunately, they  had  found  that  seed  with  normal  cytoplasm  was  resistant,  and  they 
were  ready  to  release  other  seed  that  was  resistant  to  the  new  race  of  the  fungus. 
The  new  seed  was  quickly  accepted  by  commercial  seed  companies,  and  by  1972  southern 
corn  blight  was  only  an  unpleasant  memory  for  most  Corn  Belt  farmers. 


178 


SOYBEAN  CYST  NEMATODE 


Before  1954  the  soybean  cyst  nematode,  Heterodera  glycines,    commonly  referred  to  as 
SCN,  was  known  only  in  Japan,  Korea,  and  Manchuria.   Despite  strict  quarantine  regu- 
lations, it  appeared  in  North  Carolina  in  that  year  and  has  spread  to  most  of  the 
southern  and  midwestern  states  where  soybeans  are  grown. 

SCN  was  first  found  in  Illinois  in  1959  in  a  field  in  Pulaski  County,  and  has 
since  spread  slowly  northward  to  beyond  Benton  in  Franklin  County.  Soybean  losses  due 
to  SCN  may  range  from  light  to  over  90  percent,  depending  on  infestation  level  and 
growing  conditions.   The  most  striking  damage  usually  occurs  in  light  sandy  soils, 
but  if  conditions  are  right,  severe  injury  is  also  possible  on  heavy  soils. 

Unfortunately,  symptoms  of  SCN  damage  closely  resemble  those  resulting  from 
other  causes,  thus  making  identification  difficult.   The  only  specific  sign  is  the 
presence  of  white  to  brown  spherical  females,  the  size  of  a  pinhead,  attached  to 
the  soybean  roots.   Positive  diagnosis  must  therefore  be  made  by  specialists  at  the 
suspected  location,  because  quarantine  regulations  preclude  sending  suspected  samples 
of  soil  or  roots  out  of  the  area  for  examination. 

Crop  rotations  that  avoid  growing  soybeans  on  the  same  land  in  successive  years 

will  help  in  control  of  this  pest,  but  the  most  successful  control  will  probably  be 

found  in  the  use  of  the  Custer  variety  and  other  resistant  varieties  as  they  are 
developed. 


179 


THE  SOYBEAN  STORY  IN  ILLINOIS 


When  agronomists,  plant  breeders,  soil  bacteriologists,  plant  pathologists,  other  re- 
searchers, extension  fieldmen,  farmers,  seed  companies,  and  processing  plants  all  co- 
operate in  finding  a  place  for  a  new  commercial  crop  in  the  agricultural  economy,  sig- 
nificant results  are  certain  to  follow.   This  is  essentially  what  happened  with  soy- 
beans in  Illinois  and  neighboring  states. 

Many  books  have  been  written  about  the  soybean,  its  obscure  origin,  its  culture, 
its  food  uses  in  the  Orient,  selection  and  development  of  new  varieties,  and  its  place 
in  farming  and  in  industry.   They  cover  romance,  research,  the  change  from  reluctant 
acceptance  to  resounding  enthusiasm,  replacement  for  oats  in  Corn  Belt  rotations,  and 
worldwide  use  as  a  protein  supplement  in  livestock  and  poultry  feeds.   These  books 
make  fascinating  reading  as  they  portray  the  contributions  of  men  who  devoted  their 
entire  careers  to  this  interesting  and  valuable  legume. 

The  first  written  description  of  the  soybean  is  said  to  have  been  made  in  China 
about  5,000  years  ago,  but  pictographs  showing  the  plant  have  been  dated  many  centu- 
ries earlier.   First  mention  in  publications  of  the  Illinois  Station  seems  to  have 
been  in  Circular  No.  5  by  Director  Eugene  Davenport  entitled  "The  Cow  Pea  and  the  Soja 
Bean,"  published  December,  1897.   The  first  sentence  reads,  "The  cow  pea,  which  is 
essentially  a  bean,  and  the  soja  bean,  which  is  essentially  a  pea,  are  so  similar  in 
nature  and  use  as  to  be  closely  associated  in  the  public  mind  and  to  make  it  expedient 
to  treat  of  them  in  close  connection." 

Six  years  later  Circular  69,  "The  Cowpea  and  the  Soy  Bean  in  Illinois,"  concluded 
with  this  statement:   "There  are  varieties  of  both  cowpeas  and  soy  beans  which  are 
well  adapted  to  Illinois,  and  their  success  as  a  crop  in  this  state  is  established." 
But  it  was  1915  before  as  many  as  2,000  acres  of  soybeans  were  grown  in  the  state. 
Today,  Illinois  produces  about  17  percent  of  the  world  crop,  more  than  mainland  China, 
which  is  the  second  country  in  world  production.   And  for  many  years,  more  soybeans 
were  grown  in  Illinois  than  in  all  the  other  states  combined. 

The  marked  increase  in  popularity  of  the  soybean  as  a  commercial  crop  began  about 
1920.   Within  ten  years  the  acreage  grown  in  Illinois  had  expanded  to  1  million,  and 
by  1960  to  5  million.   About  7  million  acres  are  now  grown  in  the  state.   This  growth 
in  production  was  in  large  measure  a  result  of  the  research  and  extension  activities 
of  W.L.  Burlison,  J.C.  Hackleman,  CM.  Woodworth,  and  others  on  the  staff  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agronomy. 

The  soybean  is  a  short-day  plant,  and  will  not  bloom  or  mature  until  the  day 
length  decreases  to  a  point  that  is  specific  for  each  variety.   For  successful  pro- 
duction it  is  therefore  essential  to  choose  varieties  that  are  adapted  to  the  latitude 
in  which  they  are  to  be  grown.   Regular  variety  trials  were  begun  early  in  Illinois, 
and  hundreds  of  varieties  and  strains  have  been  tested.   Many  new  varieties  have  been 
originated,  with  emphasis  on  such  characteristics  as  yield,  oil  content,  disease  re- 
sistance, and  ease  of  harvesting.   The  first  state-originated  variety  released  to  Il- 
linois farmers  was  Illini  in  1927.   Since  1936,  this  work  has  been  carried  on  cooper- 
atively with  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture.   Selection  and  crossing  by  plant 
breeders  in  the  USDA  and  cooperating  states,  using  more  than  10,000  samples  collected 


180 


mainly  from  the  Orient,  have  resulted  in  more  than  100  named  varieties,  some  40  of 
which  are  recommended  for  commercial  use. 

Originally  grown  as  a  hay  and  seed  crop,  soybeans  have  become  a  crop  of  industrial 
importance  surpassed  only  by  corn  and  wheat.   U.S.  soybean  oil  and  meal  production  in 
1969  amounted  to  3.9  million  and  17.6  million  tons,  respectively.   Of  this  amount, 
1.4  million  tons  of  oil  and  4.0  million  tons  of  meal  were  exported.   Not  until  1941 
did  the  acres  harvested  for  beans  (5,881,000)  exceed  the  acres  grown  for  hay  and  other 
purposes  (5,510,000).   After  that,  the  acreage  grown  for  hay  in  the  United  States  de- 
clined to  a  low  of  463,000  in  1964,  the  last  year  of  official  estimates  of  soybean 
hay  production.   This  latter  figure  was  close  to  the  number  of  soybean  acres  planted 
for  beans  forty  years  earlier,  when  the  totalU.S.  acreage  for  all  purposes  was  1 ,782,000. 

The  five  leading  states  in  soybean  acreage  in  1919  were  North  Carolina,  Virginia, 
Mississippi,  Kentucky,  and  Alabama.   By  1924,  as  a  result  of  expansion  in  the  Corn 
Belt,  the  five  leaders  were  Illinois,  Indiana,  Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  and  Virginia 
with  54  percent  of  the  total  acreage.   Illinois  has  held  the  lead  ever  since.   The 
total  farm  value  of  harvested  soybeans  in  the  United  States  has  exceeded  $2  billion 
each  year  since  1964. 

Several  factors  contributed  to  acceptance  of  the  soybean  and  to  its  development 
as  an  important  crop  for  Illinois  farmers.   As  tractors  became  available  and  gradual- 
ly replaced  horses  as  the  main  source  of  farm  power,  there  was  less  demand  for  oats, 
and  farmers  were  looking  for  another  crop  to  fit  into  the  common  rotation  of  corn, 
oats,  and  clover.   Soybeans  seemed  to  be  the  answer,  but  only  if  a  market  could  be 
found . 

Operators  of  screw-press  oil  mills  were  interested,  but  they  needed  an  adequate 
supply  of  beans  to  make  the  milling  worth-while.   This  was  solved  when  an  Illinois 
processor  agreed  to  buy  all  the  beans  from  50,000  acres  in  order  to  assure  enough 
beans  for  successful  operation  of  the  mill. 

There  was  a  ready  market  for  soybean  oil,  but  in  the  early  1920' s  the  meal  could 
be  sold  only  for  fertilizer.   Ground  soybeans,  when  fed  to  fattening  hogs,  produced 
soft  pork  that  was  unacceptable  in  the  market,  and  farmers  had  reservations  about 
feeding  expeller-process  soybean  meal  which  contained  4  to  5  percent  oil.   Carefully 
controlled  feeding  experiments  showed  that  the  meal  did  not  affect  carcass  quality, 
but  it  was  not  until  the  mid-1930' s  that  significant  amounts  began  to  be  used.  Today, 
about  98  percent  of  the  soybean  meal  used  in  the  United  States  goes  into  livestock 
and  poultry  feeds,  supplying  about  two-thirds  of  the  total  plant  protein  needs  for 
this  purpose. 

Harvesting  soybeans  was  a  problem  in  the  early  years,  but  in  October,  1924,  the 
Illinois  Department  of  Farm  Mechanics  (now  Agricultural  Engineering)  demonstrated  the 
use  of  the  combine  for  the  purpose.   The  combine  recovered  a  much  larger  percentage 
of  the  beans  than  did  the  threshing  machines  used  previously  and  helped  materially  to 
establish  the  soybean  as  a  profitable  crop  for  Illinois  farmers. 

In  the  late  1940' s  processors  began  to  change  from  the  screw-press  (expeller) 
method  of  removing  oil  to  the  more  efficient  hexane  solvent  process,  and  in  less  than 
ten  years  the  changeover  was  complete.   Continuous  extraction  is  well  adapted  to  large 
crushing  operations.   Standard  soybean  meal  contains  44  percent  protein.   A  more  re- 
cent development  has  been  the  manufacture  of  50  percent  protein  meal  made  from  dehulled 
beans.   This  has  proved  very  satisfactory  in  poultry  rations.   In  either  case,  the 
flakes  are  cooked  under  carefully  controlled  conditions  of  temperature  and  moisture 
before  grinding  to  make  the  meal  for  commercial  use. 


181 


Illinois  research  has  shown  clearly  that  soybeans  can  feed  efficiently  on  fer- 
tility built  up  In  the  soil  for  preceding  crops  and  that  they  do  not  need  direct  fer- 
tilization where  soil  fertility  is  high.   On  the  other  hand,  the  crop  will  show  a 
large  response  to  direct  fertilization  on  soils  that  are  low  in  phosphorus  and  potas- 
sium.  Most  profitable  yields  are  likely  to  be  obtained  by  planting  high-yielding  va- 
rieties on  good  soils  that  have  been  maintained  in  a  high  degree  of  fertility. 

Although  whole  soybeans  are  an  excellent  source  of  protein,  they  did  not  find 
favor  as  human  food  because  of  an  objectionable  "painty"  or  "beany"  flavor  that,  un- 
til recently,  was  thought  to  be  an  inherent  quality  of  the  original  bean.   It  is  now 
known  that  the  off- flavor  develops  when  there  is  damage  to  the  bean  cotyledons  in  the 
presence  of  even  a  very  small  amount  of  moisture.   The  specific  cause  is  an  enzyme 
(lipoxidaze)  which  is  almost  instantaneous  in  action.  Furthermore,  once  the  off-flavor  I 
has  developed,  there  is  no  practical  way  of  masking  or  eliminating  it. 

Illinois  researchers  in  the  Department  of  Food  Science  found  a  simple  and  inex- 
pensive treatment  of  the  whole  bean  that  inactivates  the  enzyme  before  it  can  cause 
any  off-flavor.   The  bland  whole  bean  can  then  be  used  in  a  wide  variety  of  processed 
food  products.   The  dry  beans  are  cleaned,  inspected  to  remove  impurities  and  any  dam-  I 
aged  beans,  and  washed.   The  beans  are  soaked  in  tap  water  for  about  4  hours--long 
enough  to  double  their  weight--and  then  are  heated  in  tap  water  at  210°  to  212°  F. 
(99°  to  100°  C.)  for  about  10  minutes.   In  practice,  the  specific  combination  of  time  I 
and  temperature  should  be  checked  in  each  case,  because  there  can  be  some  variation, 
depending  on  the  variety  of  soybeans  and  the  use  to  which  they  are  to  be  put. 

Alternatively,  the  process  can  be  accomplished  in  one  operation  by  placing  the 
clean  dry  beans  in  boiling  tap  water  for  about  20  minutes.   If  a  softer  or  more  ten- 
der bean  is  desired,  sodium  bicarbonate  can  be  added  to  the  soak  and  blanch  water  at 
0.5  percent,  and  the  blanching  time  increased  to  as  long  as  30  minutes.   It  is  par- 
ticularly important  to  handle  the  beans  carefully  after  soaking  and  before  blanching.  * 
Any  damage  at  that  point  will  permit  instant  development  of  the  undesirable  off-flavor  I 
by  the  lipoxidaze  enzyme.   Soybeans  treated  in  this  way  have  been  used  in  a  number  of 
food  products  that  have  been  favorably  received  by  several  taste  panels. 


182 


SPACING  PINE  CHRISTMAS  TREES 


Growers  of  Christmas  trees  need  to  plant  as  many  trees  as  possible  on  each  acre  in 
order  to  use  their  land  most  profitably.  A  ten-year  project  carried  out  at  the 
University  of  Illinois  Oquawka  Field  in  Henderson  County  was  designed  to  find  out 
how  closely  trees  could  be  planted  while  still  allowing  the  grower  to  harvest  good- 
quality  family-size  trees.   Three  commonly  grown  species--Scotch,  white,  and  red 
pines--were  used  in  the  study.   The  stock  consisted  of  two-year-old  Scotch  pine, 
and  three-year  old  white  and  red  pine  seedlings;  447  trees  of  each  species  were  plan- 
ted and  97  percent  survived.   Weeds  were  controlled  by  mowing  and  spraying  with  herbi- 
cides.  Shearing  the  trees  to  control  their  shape  and  to  increase  density  of  foli- 
age was  begun  in  June  during  the  fourth  growing  season  after  planting. 

Harvest  of  Scotch  pines  was  begun  six  years  after  planting;  white  and  red  pines 
were  harvested  seven  years  after  planting.   Trees  were  5  to  8  feet  tall  when  har- 
vested, with  the  majority  being  no  more  than  7  feet.   Whenever  possible,  salable 
trees  were  cut  a  year  before  probable  contact  with  adjacent  trees. 

A  4-foot  spacing  was  too  close  to  develop  high-quality  trees.   Many  limb  con- 
tacts between  adjacent  trees  were  found  among  all  three  species  at  this  spacing. 
Another  problem  with  4-foot  spacing  was  that  several  trees  reached  salable  size  but 
were  not  yet  of  salable  grade.   The  5-foot  spacing  was  acceptable  for  Scotch  and 
white  pines  up  to  7  feet  tall,  but  red  pines  would  not  grow  well  even  at  this  spa- 
cing. 

Close  spacing  tends  to  increase  height  at  the  expense  of  shape.   All  6-  to  8- 
foot-tall  Scotch  pines  that  were  measured  in  the  4-foot  spacing  had  some  lower  limbs 
that  outgrew  their  radial  space  of  2  feet.   But  with  5-foot  spacing  they  had  plenty 
of  room  for  limb  growth.   None  of  the  Scotch  pines  with  5-foot  spacing  were  more 
than  7  feet  tall  when  harvest  was  begun. 

About  75  percent  of  the  6-  to  7-foot-tall  white  pines  with  4-foot  spacing  had 
some  limbs  that  outgrew  their  radial  space  of  2  feet.   Five-foot  spacing  was  gener- 
ally adequate  for  white  pines,  and  these  were  the  easiest  of  the  three  species  to 
shape. 

Red  pines  tended  to  develop  a  very  wide  crown  even  with  shaping  and  as  a  re- 
sult the  lower  limbs  of  the  smaller  red  pines  outgrew  their  2-foot  radial  growth 
space  more  frequently  than  did  either  Scotch  or  white  pines  of  the  same  size.   This 
made  4-foot  spacing  unacceptable.   Even  with  5-foot  spacing,  40  percent  of  the  red 
pines  6  to  7  feet  tall,  and  all  of  those  7  to  8  feet  tall,  outgrew  their  radial 
growth  space  of  2%  feet.   Larger  red  pines  tended  to  shed  more  needles  than  is  de- 
sirable. 


183 


SPOILAGE  PROBLEMS  WITH  WET  CORN 


It  is  estimated  that  at  least  5  percent  of  the  6-billion-bushel  corn  crop  in  the 
United  States  is  lost  during  handling  and  storage  because  the  corn  goes  into  storage 
before  its  moisture  content  is  reduced  to  the  15-percent  level  normally  considered 
safe  to  prevent  spoilage.   The  problem  has  become  more  important  with  increasing  use 
of  picker-sheller  equipment  which  operates  most  efficiently  when  the  moisture  content 
is  about  23  percent. 

Since  the  most  common  factor  contributing  to  the  spoilage  of  wet  corn  is  mold, 
drying  is  commonly  practiced  to  prevent  the  development  of  molds,  the  spores  of  which 
are  already  present  on  the  corn  at  harvest  time.   Since  mold  growth  is  known  to  be 
inhibited  by  low  levels  of  0?  and  by  fairly  high  levels  of  CCL  in  the  ambient  air, 
M.P.  Steinberg  and  co-workers  in  the  Department  of  Food  Science  undertook  to  deter- 
mine the  effect  of  continuous  flushing  with  carbon  dioxide-air  atmospheres,  both 
alone  and  in  combination  with  partial  drying  and  addition  of  preservatives,  on  the 
length  of  storage  time  elapsing  before  corn  would  be  considered  spoiled. 

Yellow  dent  field  corn  of  the  XL66  hybrid  was  harvested  and  stored  in  50-gallord 
drums  at  0°  F.   The  atmospheres  used  for  flushing  contained  20,  40,  60,  80,  or 
90  percent  C0_  for  comparison  with  a  100-percent-air  control.   Half-gallon  Mason 
jars  holding  2  pounds  of  corn  were  continuously  flushed  with  the  desired  storage 
atmosphere  at  a  flow  rate  of  1/6  cubic  foot  per  hour.   Other  tests  were  run  witn  25- 
pound  samples  in  stainless  steel  bins  of  2^-cubic-foot  capacity  flushed  continuously 
at  2  cubic  feet  per  hour.   All  storage  experiments  were  conducted  at  70°   3°F.,  with 
chemical  and  microbial  tests  being  made  on  aliquot  samples  at  three-day  intervals. 

Untreated  wet  corn  showed  a  tenfold  increase  in  yeast-plus-mold  counts  with 
each  three  days  of  storage.   Separate  mold  and  yeast  counts  were  parallel  to  the 
yeast-plus^mold  counts. 

In  order  to  relate  the  counts  from  each  experiment  to  the  "storability"  of 
wet  corn  under  the  specified  conditions,  a  criterion  designated  "safe  storage  time" 
(SST)  was  arbitrarily  defined  as  the  time  required  for  a  sample  of  corn  to  reach  a 
yeast-plus-mold  count  of  130,000  per  gram  of  dry  weight. 

A  slight  increase,  from  5  to  6  days,  in  SST  for  untreated  corn  at  a  water  ac- 
tivity of  one  was  observed  as  the  C0„  content  of  the  storage  atmosphere  was  increased] 
from  0  to  90  percent.   A  much  more  pronounced  increase  in  SST,  from  7  to  26  days, 
was  observed  when  corn  treated  with  0.1  percent  sorbate  was  stored  under  similar 
conditions. 

All  three  main  variables--CO? content  of  the  storage  atmosphere,  treatment  of 
the  corn  with  K  sorbate,  and  water  activity  of  the  corn--significantly  affected  the 
SST  of  wet  corn,  but  the  application  of  any  single  variable  at  a  desirable  level 
was  of  limited  practical  value.   However,  a  substantial  increase  in  SST  was  observed 
when  two  of  the  treatments  were  applied  in  combination.   Thus  high  CO,  in  the  storage 
atmosphere  showed  a  synergistic  effect  with  either  K  sorbate  treatment  or  reduction 
of  water  activity. 


184 


STAFF  IN  1922 


The  staff  in  the  College  of  Agriculture  as  listed  in  the  Faculty  and  Student  Direc- 
tory dated  November,  1922,  consisted  of  159  academic  and  51  nonacademic  appointees, 
a  total  of  100.   They  were  designated  by  title  as: 

Professor  16 

Associate  Professor  8 

Assistant  Professor  26 

Associate  34 

Instructor  13 

First  Assistant  7 

Assistant  34 
Assistant  State  Leader: 

Agriculture  5 

Home  Economics  4 

Extension  Specialist  5 

Other  7 


Nonacademic : 


159 


Secretary,  Stenographer, 

Clerk,  Editorial  Assistant, 

Junior  Accountant,  etc.  51 


210 


The  academic  departments  were  Agronomy,  Animal  Husbandry,  Dairy  Husbandry,  Farm 
Mechanics,  Farm  Organization  and  Management,  Home  Economics,  and  Horticulture. 

The  following  held  academic  appointments  in  each  of  the  seven  departments: 

Herbert  W.  Mumford,  Dean  and  Director 

Agronomy 

Burlison.  William  Leonidas,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Crop  Production  and  Head  of  Depart- 
ment 
Anderson,  Joshua  Clayton,  B.S.,  First  Assistant  in  Soil  Fertility 
Badger,  Carroll  John,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Soil  Survey  Experimental  Fields 
Bauer,  Frederick  Charles,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Professor  of  Agronomy 
Carney,  Sidney  Sylvester,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Crop  Production 
Clark,  Bruce  Byrne,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Soil  Survey 
Coale,  John  William,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Soil  Survey  Mapping 
Crammond ,  Ralph  Gibson,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Soil  Survey  Mapping 
Crane,  Floyd  Hamilton,  B.S.,  Instructor  in  Soil  Fertility 
DeTurk,  Ernest  E.,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Soil  Technology 
Dungan,  George  Harlan,  M.S.,  Associate  in  Crop  Production 
El  1 i  ,  Orland  I.,  B.S.,  Assistant  Chief  in  Soil  Survey 
Fager,  George  Edward,  B.S.,  Associate  in  Plant  Breeding 
Hackleman,  Jay  Courtland,  A.M. ,  Associate  Professor  of  Crops  Extension 


185 


Harland,  Marion  Boyer,  B.S.,  Instructor  in  Soil  Physics 

Hein,  Mason  A.,  B.S.,  First  Assistant,  Soil  Survey  Experimental  Fields 

Hiltabrand,  Wendell  Phillips,  B.S.  Associate  in  Soil  Survey  Mapping 

Iftner,  George  Henry,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Crop  Production 

Jones,  Carl  Delmar,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Soil  Fertility 

Karraker,  Alva  Hugo,  B.S.,  Associate  in  Soil  Survey  Experimental  Fields 

Lamb,  John,  Jr.,  B.S.,  Associate  in  Soil  Survey  Experimental  Fields 

Lang,  Alvin  Leonard,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Soil  Survey  Experimental  Fields 

Lawson,  B.  Carl,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Crop  Production 

Linsley,  Clyde  Maurice,  B.S.,  Associate  in  Soil  Survey 

Marquedant,  Tsabel  Mildred,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Plant  Breeding 

Morrison,  Clay  Alexander,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Soil  Survey 

Norton,  Ethan  Arlo,  B.S.,  First  Assistant  in  Soil  Survey 

Richmond,  Thomas  Everett,  M.SC,  Associate  in  Soil  Biology 

Sears,  Ogle  Hesse,  M.S.,  Assistant  Professor  in  Soil  Fertility 

Smith,  Louie  Henrie,  Ph.D.,  Chief  in  charge  of  Publications ,  Soil  Survey 

Smith,  Raymond  Stratton,  Ph.D,  Assistant  Professor  of  Soil  Physics 

Snider,  Howard  John,  M.S.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Agronomy 

Spencer,  Victor  Elwin,  B.S.,  Instructor  in  Soil  Fertility 

Stark,  Robert  Watt,  B.S.,  First  Assistant  in  Crops 

Thomas,  Royle  Price,  B.S.,  Assistant,  Soil  Survey  Experimental  Fields 

Thor,  Alfred  Ulano,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Soil  Fertility 

Vanderveen,  George,  B.S.,  Instructor  in  Soil  Fertility 

Wimer,  David  Cleveland,  M.S.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Soil  Physics 

Winter,  Floyd  Leslie,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Plant  Breeding 

Wolkoff,  Michael  Ivanovitch,  Ph.D.,  Associate  in  Soil  Survey  Analysis 

Woodworth,  Clyde  Melvin,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Plant  Breeding 

Animal    Husbandry 

Rusk,  Henry  Perly,  M.S.,  Professor  of  Cattle  Husbandry  and  Head  of  Department 

Baker,  John  Babcock,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Nutrition 

Boughton,  Ivan  Bertrand,  D.V.M.,  Associate  in  Animal  Pathology 

Bull,  Sleeter,  M.S.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  and  Assistant  Chief  in 

Meats 
Card,  Leslie  Ellsworth,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry 
Carman,  Gage  Griffin,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Nutrition 
Clark,  Marshall  G.,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Husbandry 
Crawford,  Chalmers  Woodruff,  B.S.,  Associate  in  Animal  Husbandry 
Edmonds,  James  Lloyd,  B.S.,  Professor  of  Horse  Husbandry 
Graham,  Robert,  D.V.M.,  Professor  of  Animal  Pathology  and  Hygiene 
Grindley,  Harry  Sands,  Sc.D.,  Professor  of  Animal  Nutrition 
Hamilton,  Tom  Sherman,  M.S.,  First  Assistant  in  Animal  Nutrition 
Kammlade,  William  Garfield,  M.S.,  Associate  in  Sheep  Husbandry 
Keith,  Mary  Helen,  A.M. ,  First  Assistant  in  Animal  Nutrition 
Kendall,  Forrest  Everett,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Nutrition 
Knox,  John  Harvey,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Husbandry 
Laible,  Russell  James,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Husbandry 
Luhnow,  Lester  A.,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Husbandry 
Mackey,  Arthur  Kapp,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Husbandry 
Mitchell,  Harold  Hanson,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Professor  of  Animal  Nutrition 
Rice,  loan  Benjamin,  M.S.,  Associate  in  Animal  Husbandry 
Robert  i ,  Elmer,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Breeding 
Smith,  William  Herschel,  M.S.,  Associate  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry 


186 


Snapp,  Roscoe  Raymond,  M.S.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry 
Uyei,  Nao,  M.S.,  Assistant  in  Animal  Nutrition 

Dairy  Husbandry 

Ruehe,  Harrison  August,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Dairy  Manufactures  and  Head  of  the 

Department 
Ambrose,  Arthur  Samuel,  M.S.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Dairy  Manufactures 
Brannon,  James  Marshall,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Dairy  Bacteriology 
Campbell,  Mason  Herbert,  M.S.,  Associate  in  Dairy  Husbandry 
Davidson,  Fred  Alexander,  B.S.,  Instructor  in  Dairy  Husbandry 
Hall,  Hugh  Fisher,  B.S.,  First  Assistant  in  Dairy  Economics 
Munkwitz,  Richard  Charles,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Dairy  Production 
Nev ens,  William  Barbour,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Dairy  Cattle  Production 
Overman,  Oliver  Ralph,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Dairy  Chemistry 
Prucha,  Martin  John,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Dairy  Bacteriology 
Rhode,  Chris  Simeon,  B.S.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry  Extension 
Ross,  Harry  Albert,  M.S.,  Associate  in  Dairy  Economics 
Sanmann,  Frank  Paul,  B.S.,  Instructor  in  Dairy  Chemistry 
Stiritz,  Benjamin  Andrew,  M.S.,  Associate  in  Dairy  Manufactures 
Tracy,  Paul  Hubert,  M.S.,  Instructor  in  Dairy  Manufactures 
Yapp,  William  Wodin,  M.S.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Dairy  Cattle 

Farm  Mechanics 

Lehmann,  Emil  Wilhelm,  E.E.,  A.E.,  Professor  of  Farm  Mechanics  and  Head  of 

Department 

Hanson,  Frank  Paul,  B.S.,  Extension  Specialist  in  Farm  Mechanics 
Hedgcock,  John  Harrison,  B.S.,  Associate  in  Farm  Mechanics 
Scholl,  Carl  A.,  B.S.,  Associate  in  Farm  Mechanics 
Shawl,  Ray  Iris,  M.S.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Farm  Mechanics 

Farm  Organization  and  Management 

Case,  Harold  Clayton  M. ,  M.S..  Assistant  Professor  of  Farm  Organization  and  Manage- 
ment and  Acting  Head  of  Department 
Berg,  Herbert  Andrew,  B,S.,  Field  Assistant  in  Farm  Organization  and  Management 
Donovan,  Raymond  Leslie,  B.S.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Farm  Management 
Rauchenstein,  Emil,  F.S.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Farm  organization  and  Management 
Rhue,  Lena  Cecelia,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Farm  Organization  and  Management 
Roth,  Walter  John,  M.S.,  Associate  in  Farm  Organization  and  Management 
Small,  Dee,  B.S.,  Field  Assistant  in  Farm  Organization  and  Management 

Home  Economics 

Wardall,  Ruth  Aimee,  A.M.,  Professor  of  Home  Economics  and  Head  of  Department 

Barer,  Adelaide  Pauline,  M.S.,  Instructor  in  Foods 

Barto,  Harriet  Thompson,  A.M.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Dietetics 

Bond,  Lyda,  B.S.,  Associate  in  Home  Economics  and  Director  of  Lunch  Room 

Harris,  Feme,  A.B.,  Assistant  State  Leader,  Home  Economics  Extension 

Haugh,  Margie  B. ,  Ph.B.,  Clothing  Specialist,  Home  Economics  Extension 

Ingalls,  Ida,  A.B.,  Assistant  in  Clothing 

Jacobsen,  Eda  Augusta,  A.M.,  Associate  in  Clothing 

McCullough,  Helen  E.,  A.M.  Instructor  in  Textiles 

MacGregor,  Marian  Craig,  A.B.,  Assistant  in  Lunch  Room 


187 


Mullen,  Mary  Ellen  B.S.,  Instructor  in  Home  Decoration 

O'Laughlin,  Margaret  Agnes,  M.S.,  Instructor  in  Home  Economics 

Robinson,  Anna  Belle,  A.B.,  Associate  in  Home  Economics 

Sims,  Marjorie,  A.M.,  Home  Management  Specialist,  Extension 

Todd,  Elisabeth,  Ph.B.,  Associate  in  Home  Economics  Education 

Van  Aken,  Kathryn  Grace,  A.B.,  Assistant  State  Leader  in  Home  Economics  Extension 

Weaver,  Virginia  Hoyt ,  A.M.,  Associate  in  Home  Decoration  and  Dress  Design 

Weldon,  Myrtle,  A.M.,  Assistant  State  Leader  in  Home  Economics  Extension 

Wilkerson,  Mabel,  Ph.B.,  Home  Furnishings  Specialist,  Home  Economics  Extension 

Horticulture 

Blair,  Joseph  Cullen,  Sc.D.,  Professor  of  Horticulture  and  Head  of  Department 

Anderson,  Harry  Warren,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Pomological  Pathology 

Axr,  Ridgely  Wilson,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Olericulture 

Brock,  William  Sanford,  A.B.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Horticulture  Extension 

Carver,  Frederick  Elmer,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Pomology 

Colby,  Arthur  Samuel,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Professor  of  Pomology 

Crandall,  Charles  Spencer,  M.S.,  Professor  of  Pomology  and  Chief  in  Plant  Breeding 

Dale,  Charles  Sherman,  A.M.,  Associate  in  Olericulture 

Dorner,  Herman  Bernard,  M.S.,  Professor  of  Floriculture 

Hall,  Stanley  William,  B.S.,  Associate  in  Floriculture 

Huelsen,  Walter  August,  B.S.,  Associate  in  Olericulture 

Hutchinson,  James,  Associate  in  Floriculture 

Lloyd,  John  William.  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Olericulture 

Lohmann,  Karl  B.,  M.L.A.,  Associate  Professor  of  Landscape  Gardening 

McAdams,  May  Elizabeth,  B.S.,  Associate  in  Landscape  Gardening 

Mohlman,  Harry,  B.S.,  Instructor  in  Floriculture 

Newton,  Frank  Wilson,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Pomology 

Peterson,  Irving  Leonard,  B.S.,  Associate  in  Landscape  Gardening 

Pickett,  Bethel  Stewart,  M.S.,  Professor  of  Pomology 

Sayre,  Charles  Bovett,  B.S.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Olericulture 

Vogele,  Alfred  Charles,  M.S.,  Associate  in  Pomology 

Weinard,  Frederick  Francis,  Ph.D.,  Associate  in  Floricultural  Physiology 


188 


STALKLAGE  AND  HUSKLAGE  FOR  WINTERING  BEEF  CATTLE 


In  many  Illinois  beef  herds,  calves  are  born  in  the  spring  and  are  weaned  in  October 
or  November.   Thus  a  cow  suckles  her  calf  for  about  seven  months  and  rests  for 
five.   During  the  dry  gestation  period  her  nutritional  requirements  are  relatively 
low.   On  many  of  these  same  farms,  field  shelling  of  corn  is  common,  so  that  or- 
dinarily neither  harvested  cobs  nor  stalks  are  readily  available  as  a  roughage.   With 
these  things  in  mind,  researchers  in  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Engineering  set 
about  designing  and  building  a  suitable  corn-forage  harvesting  machine,  and  animal 
scientists  undertook  to  determine  the  extent  to  which  such  forage  could  be  used  in 
maintenance  rations  for  beef  cows  and  pregnant  heifers. 

The  problem  of  building  a  corn-forage  harvesting  machine  was  presented  to  a 
senior  design  class  of  agricultural  engineers.   It  later  grew  into  a  master's  thesis 
project.   Two  main  design  criteria  were  apparent: 

1.  The  machine  must  be  low-cost.  Corn  forage  does  not  have  a  high  value,  and 
since  there  are  many  more  stalks  than  there  are  cows  to  eat  them,  a  corn-forage  har- 
vester would  be  used  on  only  a  small  percentage  of  any  one  farm's  corn  acreage. 

2.  The  forage-harvesting  operation  should  complement  not  compete  with  the  har- 
vesting of  shelled  corn. 

The  eventual  proposal  was  to  convert  a  conventional  corn  combine  into  a  corn- 
forage  harvester.   An  out-of-production  cut-off  corn  head  replaced  the  conventional 
corn  head,  and  a  chopper  was  mounted  at  the  rear  of  the  combine.   The  whole  stalk 
would  thus  be  cut  off  and  fed  through  the  combine  cylinder;  the  grain  threshed, 
separated  out,  and  deposited  in  the  grain  tank;  and  the  forage,  including  the  cobs, 
would  go  back  into  the  chopper  from  which  it  would  be  blown  into  a  trailing  wagon. 

A  four-row  combine  was  used  to  provide  adequate  power  for  the  two-row  corn- 
forage  harvester.   The  drive  wheel  tread  was  modified  to  adapt  the  machine  to  two 
rows  40  inches  apart,  and  the  combine  frame  was  extended  to  accommodate  a  36-inch- 
wide  cylinder  from  a  forage  harvester.   Power  to  drive  the  harvester  was  obtained 
from  the  beater  shaft  through  two  right-angle  gear  boxes  and  a  drive  shaft.   The 
original  feeder  mechanism  of  the  chopper  had  to  be  shortened.   As  modified,  this 
machine  performed  adequately  in  the  field. 

Stalklage  was  ensiled  directly  after  combining  when  it  was  most  succulent.  Three 
different  methods  were  used:   conventional  upright  concrete  silos,  Harvestore  oxygen- 
free  structures,  and  piles  under  plastic  with  vacuum  seal.   Adequate  moisture  and 
fine  chopping  favored  packing  and  good  ensiling.   Moisture  up  to  65  percent  was  found 
most  suitable;  this  can  be  achieved  by  metering  water  to  the  stalklage  in  conventional 
si los . 

Some  protein  supplement  is  necessary,  and  soybean  meal,  urea,  and  biuret  each 
gave  good  results.   Because  of  their  low  palatabi 1 ity,  it  is  best  to  add  urea  and 
biuret  before  ensiling  rather  than  at  feeding  time.   Cracked  corn  and  molasses  can 
be  added  to  provide  readily  available  carbohydrates  and  to  improve  the  utilization 
of  ur  a  and  biuret  as  well  as  to  assure  favorable  lactic  acid  formation. 


189 


In  metabolism  studies  with  paired  identical-twin  cows,  digestibility  of  the 
dry  matter  in  stalklage  averaged  56  percent  as  compared  with  65  percent  for  corn 
silage. 

Cows  tend  to  sort  out  and  eat  first  the  more  finely  chopped  forage,  but  they 
did  not  do  any  sorting  when  the  forage  was  rechopped  through  a  3-inch  screen,  either 
before  ensiling  or  at  feeding  time. 

The  yield  of  50-percent-moisture  forage  was  5  to  6  tons  per  acre  during  each 
year  of  the  study.   One  acre  would  thus  produce  enough  roughage  to  winter  two  cows 
for  120  days.   This  suggests  that  7.5  million  acres  of  combined  corn  in  Illinois 
offer  a  tremendous  potential  of  feed  for  winter  maintenance  of  beef  cows. 

In  a  later  study,  husklage  (husks,  cobs,  and  thrown-over  grain)  was  compared 
with  stalklage  and  ordinary  corn  silage.   Three  types  of  husklage  were  used--medium- 
chop,  just  as  it  came  from  the  adapted  machine;  fine-chop,  rechopped  through  a  3-inch 
screen;  and  no-cnop,  salvaged  by  removing  the  cutter  knives  from  the  combine.   All 
forages  were  ensiled  in  the  same  way;  stacks  of  about  20  tons  each  were  enclosed  in 
plastic  and  ensiled  by  the  vacuum-seal  method.   Metered  amounts  of  water  were  added 
to  both  stalklage  and  husklage  to  approximate  65  percent  moisture.   Results  were  as 
fol lows : 


Forage,  lb.  per  head  daily 
Soybean  meal  (50%  C.P. ) , 

lb.  per  head  daily 
Average  daily  gain,  lb. 
Digestibility  of  dry  matter 

Soybean  meal  was  fed  with  molasses  stalklage  the  last  21  days  only. 


Husklage 

St 

alklage 

Corn  silage 

30.0 

30.0 

35.0 

1.5 

1.5a 

1.5 

0.73 

0.11 

1.24 

60.0% 

55.4% 

65.0% 

190 


SUCCESSION  OF  FETUSES  AT  PARTURITION  ON  THE  PIG 


The  pig  has  a  bicomate  uterus  with  a  common  uterine  body  and  cervix.   Fertilized 
eggs,  and  therefore  fetuses,  normally  are  fairly  well  distributed  in  both  uterine 
horns.   An  interesting  question  that  P.J.  Dziuk  and  B.C.  Harmon  in  the  Department 
of  Animal  Science  undertook  to  answer  is  the  normal  order  of  birth  of  fetuses  with 
reference  to  their  position  in  the  two  uterine  horns. 

Eleven  Yorkshire  gilts  were  used  in  the  study.   They  were  mated  to  Yorkshire 
boars  at  either  the  first  or  second  postpubertal  heat.   Seventy-five  to  ninety-five 
days  later,  the  uteri  were  exteriorized  by  midventral  laparotomy  under  general  an- 
esthesia.  Each  fetus  in  one  uterine  horn  was  marked  for  later  identification  by 
injecting  0.1  ml.  of  a  2.5-percent  solution  of  dianil  blue.   The  dye  was  injected 
with  a  24-gauge  needle  through  the  wall  of  the  uterus  into  a  left  or  right  ear,  a 
left  or  right  shoulder,  or  a  combination,  so  that  each  fetus  was  designated  accord- 
ing to  its  position  in  the  horn.   Size  of  each  fetus  and  its  anterior-posterior 
orientation  in  the  uterus--whcther  head  or  tail  was  toward  the  uterine  body--were 
recorded.   The  dianil  blue  remained  readily  visible  when  the  pigs  were  three  weeks 
old. 

At  the  110th  day  of  gestation,  each  gilt  was  placed  in  a  separate  pen  and  kept 
under  continuous  observation  until  after  parturition.   Each  pig  was  then  ear-notched 
at  birth  with  a  number  showing  its  order  in  the  litter.   Time  of  birth  was  recorded, 
along  with  a  notation  of  the  distinguishing  dyemarking,  if  present,  and  whether 
presentation  was  anterior  or  posterior. 

The  gilts  had  no  complications  at  parturition,  which  lasted  from  83  to  820  min- 
utes.  Each  of  54  fetuses  came  from  the  same  horn  as  its  predecessor,  and  52  came 
from  the  horn  opposite  from  that  of  its  predecessor. 

In  one  gilt,   one  horn  was  completely  emptied,  after  which  the  other  horn  was 
emptied.   In  another  gilt,  one  horn  was  partially  emptied,  and  then  the  other  horn 
was  completely  emptied  before  any  more  fetuses  came  from  the  first  horn.   In  the 
remaining  9  gilts,  fetuses  were  presented  randomly  from  tne  two  horns.   Usually, 
but  not  always,  they  were  presented  in  the  same  anterior-posterior  orientation  that 
they  had  when  marked  at  the  time  of  laparotomy. 


191 


SUPER  SWEET  CORN 


The  backgr.  ind  for  Super  Sweet  Corn  began  in  1948  when  E.B.  Mains  at  the  University 
of  Michigan  found  a  new  mutant  gene  in  corn.   It  was  designated  sh?   for  shrunken. 
Two  years  liter,  John  R.  Laughnan  at  Illinois  became  interested  in  it  as  a  genetic 
marker  gene  in  his  corn  breeding  work.   It  wasn't  long  until  he  discovered  that  the 
mutant  strain  produced  kernels  that  were  much  sweeter  than  those  of  normal  sweet  corn 
varieties. 

The  genetic  analysis  proved  extremely  interesting,  even  though  it  turned  out  to 
be  relatively  simple.   Ordinary  sweet  corn  is  itself  a  mutant  strain  of  field  corn 
and  is  sweet  because  it  carries  the  mutant  gene  su   for  sugary.   The  new  mutant  gene 
sh~   is  located  in  the  third  chromosome,  whereas  the  su   gene  is  in  the  fourth  chromo- 
some.  Both  genes  are  recessive,  and  a  single  plant  may  contain  both. 

In  field  corn,  which  carries  the  dominant  counterparts  of  su,    the  simple  carbo-  I 
hydrates  that  move  into  the  developing  ear  in  the  form  of  sucrose  sugar  are  rapidly 
converted  in  the  kernel  to  soluble  dextrins  and  then  to  starch.   This  means  that  the 
mature  endosperm,  packed  solidly  with  starch,  has  a  low  sugar  content,  and  field  corn 
is  not  sweet. 

When  the  shrunken  strain  is  crossed  with  sugary,  the  F  hybrid  kernels  are  nor- 
mal in  appearance;  but  when  the  hybrid  plants  grown  from  these  kernels  are  self- 
pollinated,  four  types  of  kernels  appear  among  the  offspring,  each  readily  distin- 
guishable from  the  others  by  appearance.   The  sh-2   kernels  at  maturity  have  four  times 
the  sugar  content  of  su   kernels,  and  at  normal  picking  time  about  twice  that  of  su. 
About  85  percent  of  the  sugar  in  s^  endosperm  is  sucrose,  whereas  in  su   endosperm 
only  about  60  percent  is  sucrose. 

Ordinary  sweet  corn  is  sweet  because  the  su   gene  is  an  inefficient  converter  of 
soluble  dextrins  to  starch,  thus  permitting  an  increase  of  sucrose  sugar  in  the  nor- 
mal sweet  corn  kernels.   The  corresponding  effect  of  the  s/^  gene  is  to  make  the 
transformation  of  sucrose  to  dextrin  inefficient,  thereby  partially  blocking  starch 
formation  at  an  earlier  stage,  leaving  a  maximum  of  sucrose  and  making  the  kernels 
taste  much  sweeter  than  those  of  ordinary  sweet  corn.   Super  Sweet  kernels  contain 
even  less  starch  than  those  of  ordinary  sweet  corn,  and  from  five  to  eight  times  as 
much  sugar  as  dent  corn. 

Furthermore,  the  sugary  su   strains  lose  about  two-thirds  of  their  sugar  in  the 
first  48  hours  after  harvesting,  a  distinct  disadvantage  for  both  the  home  gardener 
and  the  commercial  canner.   The  sh.2   strains,  by  contrast,  lose  only  about  a  fifth  of 
their  higher  content  of  sucrose  in  the  same  length  of  time,  so  that  the  period  of  har- 
vest for  cither  table  use  or  canning  is  not  critical. 

Fortunately,  a  comparatively  simple  breeding  program  established  Super  Sweet 
counterparts  of  both  Golden  Cross  and  Iochief  hybrids.   Super  Sweet  kernels  are  not 
only  sweeter  but  plumper,  more  crisp,  and  in  general  more  flavorsome  than  those  of 
conventional  sugary  strains. 


•192 


SWEET  CORN  BREEDING 


Illinois  has  long  been  the  leading  state  in  commercial  sweet  corn  production, 
so  it  was  only  natural  that  the  Experiment  Station  should  undertake  a  long-time  pro- 
ject in  sweet  corn  breeding,  beginning  in  1922,  with  W.A.  Huelsen  as  leader  of  the 
project. 

At  that  time  canners  were  interested  primarily  in  white  corn,  and  the  early 
studies  were  therefore  concerned  chiefly  with  Country  Gentleman  and  Narrow  Grain 
Evergreen  as  original  parents.   The  first  Country  Gentleman  hybrids  were  released 
to  the  canning  trade  in  1933.   These  and  the  crosses  released  later  soon  replaced 
the  open-pollinated  Country  Gentleman  in  commercial  fields.   The  advantages  claimed 
by  growers  were  less  variation  in  yield  from  year  to  year  and  a  significantly  great- 
er recovery  of  prime  cut  kernels  per  ton  of  unhusked  ears. 

Inbred  lines  were  released  under  contract  to  seedsmen  who  were  making  a  spe- 
cialty of  sweet  corn,  who  employed  trained  plant  breeders,  and  who  had  the  neces- 
sary drying  equipment.   The  seedsmen  then  received  supervision  by  Station  repre- 
sentatives over  a  three-year  period.   Crosses  were  used  primarily  by  canners  who 
specialized  in  white  corn. 

The  most  popular  crosses  were  Country  Gentleman  "8  x  6"  and  "5  x  10"  because 
of  superior  canning  quality,  wide  adaptability,  high  yield  of  prime  cut  kernels, 
and  resistance  to  drouth,  smut,  and  tassel-blasting.   They  could  be  grown  wher- 
ever open-pollinated  Country  Gentleman  strains  succeeded. 

Until  1942  practically  the  entire  commercial  pack  of  sweet  corn  in  the  United 
States  consisted  of  white  cream-style  corn.   Interest  in  yellow  corn  developed 
slowly  at  first,  but  by  1946  about  85  percent  of  the  entire  pack  was  yellow  corn. 
Cream  style  also  lost  in  favor  and  was  gradually  replaced  by  whole-kernel  pack. 

While  Illinois  workers  were  developing  white  inbred  lines  and  crosses,  Purdue 
researchers  were  working  with  yellow  corn  and  developed  Golden  Cross  Bantam.   Using 
this  as  a  starting  point,  Illinois  workers  developed  two  yellow  hybrids,  Illinois 
Golden  No,  10  and  Hybrid  65a  x  89a,  an  eight-rowed  cross  suitable  for  packing  as 
corn-on-the-cob.   Illinois  Golden  No.  10  proved  to  be  one  of  the  very  few  yellow 
hybrids  suitable  for  machine  harvesting.   It  has  a  stiff  stalk,  is  practically 
without  suckers,  and  is  resistant  to  corn  ear  worms. 


193 


SWINE  TYPE  STUDIES 


The  15-year  period  following  1908  witnessed  the  development  and  growing  popularity 
of  a  new  tvpe  of  hog  within  the  standard  breeds  of  swine  in  the  United  States.  Lard 
had  become  less  valuable,  and  small  lean  cuts  of  choice-quality  pork  were  in  demand 
at  retail  outlets.   The  Illinois  Station  began  in  1922  a  series  of  investigations 
to  determine  which  of  five  types  of  lard  hog  (Poland  China) --Very  Chuffy,  Chuffy, 
Intermediate,  Rangy,  and  Very  Rangy--would  most  economically  meet  existing  market 
requirements.   All  of  these  types  were  found  on  farms  in  the  Corn  Belt. 

First  was  the  matter  of  rate  and  economy  of  gain.   Over  300  pigs  of  the  five 
types  were  studied  during  1922-1924,  most  being  individually  fed  from  an  initial 
weight  of  70  pounds  to  a  final  weight  of  approximately  225  pounds.   The  Interme- 
diate type  of  hog  tended  to  make  more  rapid  and  economical  gains  than  the  Very 
Chuffy  or  Very  Rangy,  but  the  differences  proved  not  to  be  statistically  signifi- 
cant. 

Surprisingly,  when  hogs  were  self-fed,  there  was  no  difference  in  the  lean 
carcass  content  of  the  Chuffy,  Intermediate,  and  Rangy  types.   The  Very  Rangy  car- 
casses contained  a  little  more  lean  than  the  other  types,  and  the  Very  Chuffy  car- 
casses a  little  less.   Similarly,  there  was  little  difference  in  cutting  percentages 
between  the  Chuffy,  Intermediate,  and  Rangy  types  when  self-fed  in  drylot.   From 
the  butcher's  standpoint,  the  Intermediate  type,  either  hand-  or  self-fed,  proved 
the  most  desirable  of  the  five  types  studied.   The  Rangy  type,  however,  was  quite 
acceptable  if  self-fed. 

Nutritional  studies  were  related  to  the  energy  and  protein  requirements  of 
growing  swine  of  the  five  types,  and  to  the  efficiency  with  which  they  utilized 
feed  energy  in  growth.   Experimental  data  obtained  included:   (1)  the  body  composi- 
tion of  growing  and  fattening  pigs  at  different  weights,  (2)  their  maintenance 
requirements,  (3)  the  rates  at  which  the  different  nutrients  were  deposited  in  the 
carcasses  during  growth  and  fattening,  and  (4)  the  relation  between  feed  (and  food 
nutrients)  consumed  above  maintenance  requirements  and  the  nutrients  recovered  in 
the  gains  of  the  pigs.   More  than  150  pigs  were  slaughtered  at  different  weights 
and  analyzed  individually  for  dry  matter,  total  nitrogen,  fat  (ether  extract),  ash, 
and  gross  energy.   All  feed  used  was  submitted  to  routine  analysis  and  gross  energy 
determination. 


The  dressed  carcasses  of  pigs  of  distinctly  different  type  slaughtered  at  the 
same  weight,  although  differing  distinctly  in  market  finish,  analyzed  very  nearly 
the  same.   It  was  apparent  that  carcasses  differed  in  the  distribution  of  fat  but 
not  in  the  total  content  of  fat. 

In  general,  especially  at  heavier  weights,  the  Intermediate-type  pigs  were 
more  economical  of  food  energy  for  maintenance  than  the  Chuffy  or  Very  Chuffy  types, 
but  no  type  differences  were  detected  in  total  feed  utilization.   With  a  ration 
on.isting  of  yellow  corn,  middlings,  and  tankage,  about  1  pound  per  day  per  100 
pour,  's  of  live  weight  was  required  to  maintain  body  weight,  both  for  young  pigs 
weigning  50  to  70  pounds  and  for  fat  pigs  weighing  225  pounds  or  more. 


194 


The  percentage  composition  of  pigs  killed  at  increasing  weights  showed  increas- 
ing contents  of  dry  matter  and  fat  and  decreasing  contents  of  protein  and  ash.  After 
a  weight  of  150  to  175  pounds,  corresponding  to  an  age  of  25  to  30  weeks,  the  com- 
position of  pigs,  expressed  on  a  "fat-free,  empty  weight"  or  "protoplasmic"  basis, 
was  remarkably  constant  and  appeared  to  be  unaffected  by  the  system  of  feeding. 
This  composition,  characteristic  of  maturity,  consisted  of  75  to  76  percent  water, 
20  to  21  percent  crude  protein,  and  approximately  4  percent  ash. 

In  gaining  weight  from  65  to  225  pounds,  the  pigs  analyzed  in  this  experiment 
deposited  74  percent  of  the  added  dry  matter,  15  percent  of  the  added  ash,  78  per- 
cent of  the  added  energy  in  the  boneless  meat  of  the  dressed  carcass.   Eighty  per- 
cent of  the  added  protein  and  24  percent  of  the  added  energy  were  stored  in  the 
lean  meat. 


195 


SYNTHETIC  MULCHES  FOR  VEGETABLE  CROPS 


For  many  years,  home  gardeners  and  some  commercial  growers  have  used  organic  mul- 
ches on  vegetable  crops  to  control  weeds,  conserve  moisture,  and  increase  yields. 
More  recently,  synthetic  mulches  in  the  form  of  plastic  or  paper  sheets  have  become 
available  for  use  by  commercial  growers.   They  have  an  added  advantage  in  that  they 
will  increase  soil  temperatures,  thus  permitting  earlier  harvesting  of  crops,  but 
for  many  there  is  the  disadvantage  that  they  must  be  removed  by  hand  at  the  end  of 
the  season.   Some  paper  mulches  will  decompose,  thus  eliminating  the  removal  pro- 
blem. 

Researchers  in  the  Department  of  Horticulture  tested  a  variety  of  both  paper 
and  plastic  mulches  for  several  years,  laying  the  mulch  mechanically  between  rows. 
Later  a  planter  developed  in  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Engineering  was  used 
to  seed  through  the  mulch  by  means  of  sharp-pointed  valves  on  the  rim  of  the  plant- 
er wheel.   This  combination  proved  satisfactory  for  squash,  cucumber,  and  water- 
melon seed  both  at  Urbana  and  at  the  Dixon  Springs  Agricultural  Center.   The  prac- 
tice can  be  economically  justified  if  the  following  benefits  are  obtained: 

1.  Retention  of  soil  moisture  and  control  of  erosion. 

2.  Higher  soil  temperatures,  which  result  in  rapid  germination  and 
earlier  and  faster  plant  growth. 

3.  Increased  yields  of  healthier,  cleaner  fruits. 

4.  Excellent  weed  control. 

5.  Reduced  insect  damage  if  treated  mulches  are  used. 

Soil  fumigation  prior  to  mulching  and  seeding  can  also  be  used  to  control  para- 
sitic nematodes. 


196 


TRANSMISSIBLE  GASTROENTERITIS  (TGE)  OF  SWINE 


Transmissible  gastroenteritis  (TGE)  of  swine  is  a  most  unusual  sort  of  disease.   It 
can  be  tragic  for  a  swine  producer  on  a  short-term  basis  in  that  when  the  infection 
strikes  in  a  farrowing  house,  death  losses  may  amount  to  90  percent  of  the  pigs 
that  normally  would  be  saved  at  farrowing  time.   On  the  other  hand,  it  tends  to  be 
self-limiting  in  that  if  the  sows  are  rebred,  the  colostrum  which  they  produce  for 
the  next  crop  of  pigs  confers  immunity  on  those  pigs  so  that  further  losses  are  vir- 
tually nil. 

Doctor  Miodrag  Ristic  and  co-workers  in  the  College  of  Veterinary  Medicine  and 
the  Experiment  Station  devoted  a  great  deal  of  time  to  a  study  of  the  physiology 
and  pathogenesis  of  the  disease.   In  one  series  of  tests,  two  domestic  and  two  for- 
eign isolates  of  the  virus  were  grown  in  pig  and  dog  kidney  tissue  culture  monolay- 
ers in  order  to  study  their  developmental  sequence.   These  monolayers  were  stained 
by  the  fluorescent  antibody  (FA)  and  acridine  orange  (AO)  techniques,  which  revealed 
the  presence  of  minute  fluorescing  particles  in  the  cytoplasm  as  early  as  6  hours 
after  exposing  the  culture  to  the  virus.   Thickening  and  fragmentation  of  the  nu- 
clear membrane  were  observed  at  6  hours,  but  more  markedly  at  8  to  9  hours  after 
inoculation. 

The  minute  intracytoplasmic  particles  became  particularly  prominent  following 
RNA-ase  digestion  of  the  cytoplasm.  When  pepsin  treatment  was  followed  by  RNA-ase 
action,  the  RNA  staining  particles  could  no  longer  be  detected. 

Examinations  of  AO-  and  FA-stained  frozen  sections  of  small  intestines  of  baby 
pigs  at  10  to  14  hours  after  infection  revealed  the  presence  of  light  orange  (AO) 
and  yellow-green  (FA)  particles  in  the  cytoplasm  of  the  epithelial  cells  at  the  tips 
of  the  villi. 

These  findings  prompted  the  conclusion  that  the  site  of  maturation  of  the  trans- 
missible gastroenteritis  virus  of  the  swine  under  study  was  intracytoplasmic,  and 
the  resulting  enzyme  studies  indicated  that  its  nucleic  acid  is  of  the  RNA  type. 

A  pig-origin  purified-virus  vaccine  was  later  developed  for  administration  to 
sows  in  capsule  form.   This  form  of  vaccine  has  two  advantages  over  the  question- 
able practice  of  feeding  the  intestines  of  infected  pigs: 

1.  The  capsule  contains  high  concentrations  of  the  TGE  virus  free  of  other 
pathogens  which  might  complicate  the  disease, 

2.  Giving  concentrated  virus  in  capsules  makes  certain  that  each  sow  will  re- 
ceive an  adequate  amount  of  virus  to  reinforce  her  basic  immunity.   When  the  anti- 
body passes  into  the  sow's  milk,  it  is  effective  in  preventing  TGE  in  baby  pigs. 
Such  use  of  the  vaccine  may  control  TGE  on  farms  where  there  have  been  outbreaks 

or  on  farms  endangered  by  the  presence  of  the  disease  in  the  neighborhood. 


197 


TRANSUTERINE  MIGRATION  OF  EMBRYOS  IN  THE  PIG 

Intrauterine  migration  of  embryos  is  known  to  occur  in  many  mammals,  and  has  been 
regarded  as  a  means  of  equalizing  the  distribution  of  embryos  in  cases  of  disparity 
in  the  number  of  fertilized  eggs  from  each  ovary.   P.J.  Dziuk  and  associates  in 
the  Department  of  Animal  Science  undertook  to  determine  the  time  of  migration  of 
embryos  in  the  pig  and  the  effect  of  varying  their  numbers  on  the  rate  of  migration 
and  on  distribution. 

Ninety-one  gilts  were  tested  daily  for  estrus  in  the  presence  of  a  boar,  and  were 
bred  on  the  first  day  of  estrus  either  by  natural  mating  or  by  artificial  insemina- 
tion.  The  day  after  breeding  was  designated  as  day  one. 

Uterine  surgery  was  carried  out  aseptically  via  midventral  laparotomy,  using 
general  anesthesia.   In  36  of  the  gilts,  one  oviduct  was  occluded  at  six  months  of 
age  by  removing  a  section  of  the  isthmus  about  1  cm.  long  between  two  ligatures. 
Embryos  could  then  enter  from  one  oviduct  only.   The  number  of  eggs  entering  the 
one  uterine  horn  would  be  the  same  as  in  a  normal  pig,  but  the  total  number  of  em- 
bryos would  be  halved. 

In  48  of  the  gilts,  one  ovary  was  removed  when  they  were  six  months  old.   The 
remaining  ovary  was  able  to  compensate,  and  produced  the  same  number  of  eggs  as 
two  ovaries  would  produce  in  the  intact  gilt.   The  number  of  eggs  entering  the  ut- 
erus from  one  oviduct  would  then  be  doubled. 

Uteri  of  seven  pregnant  gilts  (three  with  one  oviduct  occluded  and  four  with 
one  ovary  removed)  were  examined  on  each  of  days  6,  7,.  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  and  15 
of  gestation.   Migration  of  embryos  from  one  horn  to  the  other  usually  occurred 
first  on  day  8  or  9,  and  the  uterus  was  completely  occupied  by  day  15. 

Rate  of  migration  and  distribution  of  embryos  were  not  affected  by  number  of 
embryos,  number  of  corporea  lutea,  or  by  uterine  length.   Uterine  length  did  not 
change  between  day  6  and  15.   Bilateral  ovariectomy  after  breeding,  however,  was 
associated  with  arrested  growth  of  embryos,  a  decreased  rate  of  embryo  migration, 
and  a  reduction  in  uterine  length. 

Observations  in  this  study  confirmed  earlier  reports  that  transuterine  migra- 
tion of  pig  embryos  is  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception.   The  time  of  transuterine 
migration  was  documented,  and  appears  to  occur  ordinarily  after  day  6  and  before 
day  11  of  gestation.   Migration  and  spacing  continue  until  at  least  day  15  and  per- 
haps longer. 


198 


URBANA  WEATHER  STATION 

The  Urbana  weather  station  on  the  campus  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  now  called 
the  Morrow  Plots  weather  station,  is  one  of  the  oldest  University  installations  still 
in  operation  and  is  unique  in  comparison  with  other  weather  stations  in  the  state. 
Established  initially  to  obtain  weather  data  for  agricultural  experiments,  it  has 
become  a  source  of  such  data  for  the  entire  university,  the  local  community  of  Urbana- 
Champaign,  and  the  U.S.  Weather  Bureau. 

The  station  opened  on  August  17,  1888,  and  has  been  in  continuous  operation 
ever  since.   It  is  one  of  15  stations  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  selected  by  the 
U.S.  Weather  Bureau  as  bench  mark  stations  for  the  study  of  past  and  future  climatic 
changes  in  the  United  States.   The  station  has  also  been  a  part  of  the  Weather  Bu- 
reau's cooperative  climatological  station  network  since  1902.   Making  observations 
of  weather  conditions  and  recording  these  observations  were  originally  performed  as 
Experiment  No.  76  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.   In  addition  to  the  usual 
observations  of  temperature,  relative  humidity,  precipitation,  sky  conditions,  and 
wind  speed  and  direction,  a  continuous  record  of  soil  temperatures  measured  three 
times  daily  at  depths  of  1,  3,  6,  9,  12,  and  36  inches  has  been  kept  since  July  1, 
1897.   Daily  maximum  and  minimum  soil  temperatures  at  depths  of  4  and  8  inches  have 
also  been  recorded  since  December  2,  1959. 

A  few  unusual  items  may  be  worthy  of  mention.  A  severe  windstorm,  described 
in  the  local  newspapers  as  a  "terrible  typhoon,"  occurred  at  midnight  on  June  10, 
1902,  and  accounted  for  the  only  loss  of  precipitation  data  from  the  station  in  its 
long  history.  An  entry  in  the  station  record  for  June  11  states  "gauges  blown  off," 
and  a  footnote  adds  "Rain  gauge  blown  100  feet  into  a  cornfield."  Large  numbers  of 
trees  and  buildings  were  severely  damaged. 

Probably  the  worst  hailstorm  ever  experienced  in  the  local  area  occurred  on 
April  4,  1927.   Hailstones  collected  on  campus  measured  as  much  as  4  inches  in  dia- 
meter, the  largest  ever  to  occur  locally  since  records  began  in  1888.   Greenhouses 
in  Urbana  and  at  the  university  lost  about  40,000  square  feet  of  glass;  nearly  1,000 
street  light  globes  were  broken  in  Urbana;  and  hailstones  drove  holes  through  many 
home  and  automobile  roofs. 

Since  May  1,  1948,  the  Morrow  Plots  station  has  been  maintained  and  supervised 
by  the  Illinois  State  Water  Survey  in  connection  with  its  meteorological  research 
related  to  the  water  resources  of  Illinois.   In  1952  an  additional  station  was  in- 
stalled at  the  University  of  Illinois  Willard  Airport,  about  five  miles  southwest 
of  the  Morrow  Plots  station.   And  since  March  1,  1951,  continuous  records  of  wind 
speed  and  direction  have  been  made  with  an  aerovane  instrument  located  on  the  roof 
of  the  Water  Resources  Building.   Another  innovation  was  transferring  the  daily  wea- 
ther data  for  the  years  1902-1955  as  recorded  for  the  Morrow  Plots  station  to  IBM 
cards  so  that  detailed  climatological  analyses  can  be  more  easily  made. 

Some  of  the  persons  closely  associated  with  the  weather  station  were  W.L.  Pills- 
bury,  J.G.  Mosier,  W.A.  Mclntyre,  R.S.  Smith,  H.P.  Etler,  and  S.A.  Changnon. 


199 


UREA  IN  RUMINANT  NUTRITION 


Some  of  the  early  work  involving  the  use  of  urea  in  rations  for  sheep  and  lambs  was 
done  by  L.E.  Harris  and  H.H.  Mitchell  and  reported  in  1940.   Urea  is  a  simple  sub- 
stance made  from  the  elements  of  the  air,  and  contains  six  times  as  much  nitrogen  as 
soybean  meal.   When  fed  to  sheep  weighing  about  34  kg.  and  ranging  in  age  from  15 
to  18  months  in  amounts  commensurate  with  their  requirements  for  maintenance,  it 
was  not  excreted  through  the  skin  but  was  utilized  to  the  extent  of  about  90  percent. 

In  growth  tests  it  was  found  that  the  addition  of  urea  to  a  low-nitrogen  ration 
that  was  itself  unable  to  support  appreciable  growth  in  lambs,  or  even  consistently 
to  maintain  nitrogen  equilibrium,  converted  it  into  a  ration  capable  of  promoting  a 
normal  or  nearly  normal  rate  of  growth.   It  was  concluded  that  nitrogen  from  urea  is 
as  satisfactory  for  growing  lambs  as  that  from  most  ordinary  feeds,  provided  at  least 
25  percent  of  the  feed  nitrogen  is  in  the  form  of  preformed  protein,  and  provided 
further  that  the  total  protein  equivalent  of  urea  does  not  exceed  about  12  percent. 

Rations  containing  up  to  3  percent  urea  on  a  dry  basis  did  not  exert  any  observ- 
able toxic  effect  on  lambs  over  a  feeding  period  of  110  days.   Later  work  showed  that 
the  addition  of  0.2  percent  elemental  sulfur  to  a  modified  urea  supplement  increased 
lamb  gains  significantly. 

Success  with  urea  in  sheep  feeding  led  to  its  use  with  cattle.   In  1952-53  when 
urea  was  fed  to  800-pound  yearling  Hereford  steers  at  a  level  which  provided  60  per- 
cent of  the  total  nitrogen  in  the  ration,  retention  values  were  normal  and  no  signs 
of  toxicity  were  noted. 

In  later  work  it  was  found  that  a  high-urea  supplement  formulated  with  ground 
alfalfa  and  molasses  provided  stimulation  to  rumen  fermentation  that  seems  desirable 
for  the  optimum  utilization  of  urea. 


200 


VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURE  SERVICE 


What  is  now  known  as  Vocational  Agriculture  Service  had  its  beginning  in  February, 
1938,  when  Melvin  Henderson  was  appointed  to  the  staff  of  the  dean's  office  to  give 
full  time  to  helping  teachers  of  vocational  agriculture  in  Illinois  high  schools  in 
the  area  of  farm  mechanics.   Planning  for  this  service  had  been  a  joint  effort  in- 
volving the  State  Board  of  Vocational  Education  in  Springfield,  the  Department  of 
Agricultural  Engineering,  and  the  dean's  office  of  the  College  of  Agriculture.   Mr. 
Henderson's  broader  responsibility  was  to  serve  as  a  liaison  between  the  College  of 
Agriculture  and  the  teachers  of  vocational  agriculture,  a  policy  which  still  con- 
tinues. 

Teaching  materials  prepared  during  the  first  year,  in  cooperation  with  teachers 
in  the  schools  and  with  assistance  from  staff  members  in  Agricultural  Engineering, 
included  such  topics  as  forge  work,  cold  metal  work,  gas  engine  ignition,  mechanical 
drawing,  and  woodwork.   These  materials  were  duplicated  and  sold  to  the  schools  at 
cost.   Another  early  development  was  a  new  scoring  system  for  placings  in  various 
judging  contests  in  which  students  took  part.   Most  scoring  had  been  done  on  the 
assumption  that  individuals  in  a  given  pair  were  always  equidistant  from  each  other 
in  terms  of  placings  by  the  official  judge.   This,  of  course,  was  seldom  the  case, 
and  the  new  system  recognized  and  made  allowance  for  the  sort  of  variable  spacing 
that  often  occurs.    It  also  provided   for  machine  scoring  and   soon  became  known 
the  Illinois  Scoring  System. 

During  1939-40,  one-day  intensive  courses  in  farm  mechanics  covering  such  sub- 
jects as  gasoline  engine  repair  and  adjustment,  binder  head  adjustment,  and  electric 
wiring  were  offered  to  teachers  of  vocational  agriculture.   These  courses  proved  to 
be  extremely  popular,  and  led  to  the  offering  of  credit  courses  of  similar  content 
that  could  be  taken  by  prospective  teachers  while  they  were  still  undergraduates 
in  the  College  of  Agriculture. 

The  service  expanded  rapidly  to  include  the  preparation  of  teaching  aids  in 
soils,  crops,  animal  husbandry,  and  farm  management.   The  list  of  such  available 
aids  eventually  grew  to  more  than  250,  including  such  items  as  slidefilms  and  kits 
for  teaching  electric  wiring,  service  of  electric  motors,  electrical  controls,  con- 
crete construction,  surveying,  and  engine  analysis.   More  than  400  schools  made  use 
of  these  kits  on  a  loan  basis. 

Soil-testing  kits  were  developed  and  distributed  to  some  400  schools,  each  kit 
containing  enough  items  to  permit  an  entire  class  to  test  soil  samples  for  acidity, 
phosphorus,  and  potassium  at  one  time.   Mimeographed  and  multilithed  materials  have 
varied  from  a  single  page  to  50  or  more  pages,  and  editions  of  these  have  varied 
from  a  few  hundred  copies  to  as  many  as  100,000  for  some  of  the  more  popular  subjects. 

Several  activities  ot  interest  to  teachers  of  vocational  agriculture  and  to  their 
st  Tents  are  held  on  the  campus  each  year,  sponsored  jointly  by  the  State  Board  of 
Vocational  Education  and  the  College  of  Agriculture,  including  the  state  FFA  con- 
vention (the  service  helps  publicize  the  activities  of  the  Future  Farmers  of  America), 
state  judging  contests,  state  FFA  Awards  Day,  and  the  annual  conference  of  teachers 
of  vocational  agriculture. 


201 


WATER  ADSORPTION  RATE  OF  WHEAT  FLOUR 
RELATED  TO  CAKE-BAKING  PERFORMANCE 


Data  on  moisture  adsorption  by  foods  are  useful  in  the  determination  of  techniques 
for  processing  and  packaging  dehydrated  foods,  and  for  the  prediction  of  undesirable 
chemical,  physical,  and  microbiological  changes  that  might  occur  during  storage  of 
such  foods.   Various  workers  have  used  a  number  of  different  methods,  both  direct  and 
indirect,  for  obtaining  this  kind  of  information. 

A.I.  Nelson  and  co-workers  in  the  Department  of  Food  Science,  after  reviewing 
the  available  methods,  succeeded  in  developing  a  piece  of  laboratory  apparatus  for 
rapid  determination  of  moisture-adsorption  isotherms.   They  used  freeze-dried  wheat 
flour  containing  about  1.5  percent  of  moisture,  and  determined  the  sorption  isotherm  j 
over  a  relative  humidity  range  from  5  to  80  percent .   Their  results  agreed  very  closely 
with  those  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  constant-relative-humidity  desiccator  technique. 

Air  at  constant  relative  humidity  was  recirculated  through  a  tube  loosely  packed- 
with  flour.   Samples  were  weighed  periodically,  and  curves  of  weight  gain  against 
time  were  plotted.   The  adsorption  rate  characteristic  increased  linearly  with  rela- 
tive humidity  and  decreased  with  increasing  protein  content  of  the  flour  samples. 

The  moisture  adsorption  isotherm  of  wheat  flour  was  independent  of  the  particle-J 
size  distribution  of  the  flour,  suggesting  that  water  adsorption  by  flour  is  not  a 
surface  phenomenon,  but  instead  takes  place  on  specific  sites  within  the  pores  inside 
the  particles. 

Cakes  baked  from  flours  of  decreasing  particle-size  distributions  had  signifi- 
cantly increasing  volumes  and  decreasing  sorptive  capacity. 


202 


WATER  LOSSES  THROUGH  SURFACE  RUNOFF 

Data  on  water  runoff  are  important  for  the  proper  design  of  grass  waterways,  con- 
crete structures,  farm  ponds,  and  other  erosion-control  structures  in  Illinois.  A 
ten-year  study  of  this  kind--the  first  applicable  to  central  Illinois--was  made  by 
B.A.  Jones  and  R.L.  McFall  of  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Engineering  from  1950 
to  1959  on  two  watersheds  on  the  Robert  Allerton  farms  near  Monticello.   The  soils 
involved  were  predominantly  Drummer  silty  clay  loam  and  Flanagan  silt  loam,  moder- 
ately permeable,  dark-colored  prairie  soils  with  nearly  level  to  gently  sloping 
topography,  typical  of  central  and  parts  of  north-central  Illinois.   Watershed  1A 
was  on  a  grain  farm  and  IB  on  a  grain- livestock  farm. 

Average  rainfall  on  the  two  watersheds  for  the  ten-year  period  was  32.11  inches 
annually  and  22.09  inches  during  April  to  October,  compared  with  the  1903-1954  fig- 
ures for  Urbana  of  36.43  and  24.30  inches,  respectively.   Runoff  and  annual  precipi- 
tation are  not  necessarily  related,  however.    Peak  runoff  normally  follows  heavy 
rains  and  is  greatly  affected  by  ground  cover  and  by  slope  in  a  given  area.   The 
highest  rate  of  runoff  on  Watershed  1A  was  0.682  inch  per  acre  per  hour  on  July  9, 
1951,  and  that  on  Watershed  IB  was  only  0.327  inch  on  October  6,  1955.   The  differ- 
ence of  0.355  inch  reflected  the  effect  of  cropping  practices,  and  emphasizes  the  im- 
portance of  having  a  sizable  percentage  of  the  land  in  good  cover  as  much  of  the 
time  as  possible. 


203 


WATER  USE  BY  ROW  CROPS 


Each  acre  of  land  in  Illinois  normally  receives  3,000  to  5,000  tons  of  water  a  year 
in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow.   About  80  percent  of  this  is  returned  to  the  atmosphere, 
either  by  evaporation  from  the  soil  surface  or  by  transpiration  from  the  leaf  sur- 
face of  growing  plants.   Under  Illinois  conditions,  it  would  take  200  to  300  tons  of 
coal  or  50,000  gallons  of  gasoline  per  acre  to  supply  as  much  energy  as  is  represen- 
ted by  the  70  percent  of  absorbed  radiant  energy  from  the  sun  to  accomplish  the  evap- 
oration and  transpiration.   Rates  of  evaporation  and  transpiration  vary  greatly  from 
season  to  season.   Potential  water  loss  by  way  of  these  two  processes  is  less  than 
normal  rainfall  during  fall,  winter,  and  early  spring  when  days  are  relatively  short 
and  cloudy,  but  exceeds  normal  rainfall  by  about  50  percent  during  June,  July,  and 
August.   This  is  the  fundamental  problem  in  water  management.   The  moisture-storage 
capacity  of  the  soil,  especially  the  subsoil,  becomes  important  in  bringing  seasonal 
water  supply  and  demand  into  balance. 

Soils  differ  greatly  in  their  ability  to  store  and  retain  available  moisture, 
as  shown  by  the  following  examples: 


Soil  type 


Inches  of  available  water 


To  a  depth 
of  5  feet 


In  probable 
rooting  depth 


Watseka  loamy  fine  sand 
Saybrook  silt  loam 
Cisne  silt  loam 


2.3 
10.6 
14.4 


2.3 
6.6 
5.4 


Soil  properties  which  permit  or  limit  the  expansion  of  roots  are  also  very  im- 
portant and  affect  the  need  for  summer  rainfall. 

On  an  average  summer  day  in  Illinois,  the  absorbed  radiant  energy  from  the  sun 
is  used  about  as  follows: 


Evaporation  and  transpiration 

Photosynthesis 

Heating  the  soil 

Heating  the  air  adjacent  to 
the  soil  and  plant  surfaces 


70  percent 

5  percent 

10  percent 

15  percent 


Researchers  M.B.  Russell  and  D.P.  Peters  undertook  to  find  out  how  a  decrease 
in  the  amount  of  evaporation  would  affect  water  use  by  row  crops.   They  controlled 
evaporation  from  corn  and  soybean  plots  in  two  ways:   by  covering  the  soil  surface 
with  waterproof  plastic,  and  by  increasing  the  number  of  plants  per  acre.  The  plastic^ 
covered  corn  plots  used  only  about  half  as  much  water  as  the  uncovered  plots,  show- 
ing that  approximately  half  of  the  total  water  used  to  grow  corn  is  actually  lost 
through  evaporation  instead  of  being  utilized  by  the  crop  itself.   Since  nearly  all 
Illinois  soils  retain  enough  water  to  meet  transpiration  needs,  it  is  obvious  that 
if  some  method  could  be  devised  to  prevent  or  greatly  reduce  evaporation  from  the 


204 


soil,  water  would  rarely  be  a  problem  in  corn  production  in  Illinois.   The  number 
of  plants  per  acre  did  not  greatly  affect  total  water  use  when  there  was  ample  water 
available,  because  increased  transpiration  is  largely  balanced  by  a  decrease  in  evapo- 
ration. 

In  summary,  cutting  down  on  evaporation  would  mean  more  efficient  use  of  both 
summer  rainfall  and  water  stored  in  the  subsoil.   This  can  only  be  accomplished  if 
less  solar  energy  is  permitted  to  reach  the  soil  surface  or  less  vapor  is  allowed  to 
leave  the  soil. 


205 


WEED  CONTROL 


Historically,  the  state  of  Illinois  has  been  seriously  concerned  with  weed  control 
for  at  least  100  years.   The  Illinois  Noxious  Weed  Law,  known  as  the  Canada  Thistle 
Act,  was  approved  March  15,  1872.   It  defined  noxious  weeds,  for  the  purposes  of 
the  act,  as  Canada  thistle  (Cirsium  arvense)    and  all  its  varieties,  perennial  sow 
thistles  (Sonchus  arvensis)    and  European  bindweed  (Convolvulus  arvensis) .      It  stat- 
ed in  part  that  "It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  owners  of  lands  on  which  noxious  weeds 
are  found  growing,  to  destroy  the  same  before  they  reach  a  seed  bearing  stage,  and 
to  prevent  such  weeds  from  perpetuating  themselves."  This  was  28  years  before  the 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  was  granted  federal  funds  for  its  first  weed  control 
program,  to  find  methods  of  control  for  johnsongrass. 

More  than  half  of  the  world's  people  live  in  the  tropical  zone  and  produce  more 
than  half  of  the  world's  food  crops,  including  all  of  the  cassava,  95  percent  of 
the  bananas,  90  percent  of  both  rice  and  sugarcane,  80  percent  of  the  peanuts,  50 
percent  of  the  millets  and  sorghum,  and  25  percent  of  the  corn  and  wheat.   Probably 
more  human  energy  is  expended  in  weeding  these  crops  than  in  any  other  single  task. 
By  contrast,  in  certain  temperate-zone  areas  some  major  crops  can  be  grown  from  plant- 
ing to  harvest  without  any  hand-hoeing  or  weeding  whatever.   This,  briefly,  is  the 
story  of  weed  control  in  the  industrialized  nations  of  the  world  during  the  past  25 
years. 

The  earlier  years  saw  a  slow  change  from  hand-hoeing  and  weeding  to  the  use  of 
horse-drawn  tillage  tools  that  simultaneously  accomplished  reasonable  weed  control. 
Beginning  something  more  than  50  years  ago,  a  few  innovators  experimented  with  chem- 
ical control  of  certain  weeds,  but  the  real  "chemical  revolution"  did  not  occur  un- 
til 1946,  when  2,4-D  appeared  on  the  agricultural  scene.   Prior  to  that  time,  the 
chemicals  used  with  varying  degrees  of  success  included  common  salt,  sulfuric  acid, 
iron  sulfate,  copper  sulfate,  sodium  arsenite,  and,  finally  sodium  chlorate.   This 
last  material  was  effective  enough  to  result  in  the  use  of  nearly  3,000,000  pounds 
annually  in  Kansas  by  1939,  chiefly  to  control  field  bindweed. 

J.  J.  Pieper,  writing  in  1930,  pointed  out  that  with  the  importation  and  intro- 
duction of  agricultural  seed,  mostly  from  Europe,  came  new  weeds  until  about  75  per- 
cent of  the  worst  weeds  in  the  Corn  Belt  had  been  imported.   He  also  stressed  that 
a  major  factor  in  the  weed  problem  is  that  weeds  are  prolific  producers  of  seed. 
While  a  corn  plant  does  well  to  produce  1,000  seeds,  or  a  wheat  plant  100,  careful 
counts  showed  that  an  average  cocklebur  plant  may  produce  10,000  seeds,  ragweed 
23,000,  crabgrass  90,000,  pigweed  155,000,  and  purslane  as  many  as  1,250,000. 

Furthermore,  the  longevity  of  buried  seeds  is  fantastic.   Pieper  cited  an  early 
test  made  in  Michigan,  in  which  sets  of  23  species  of  weed  were  buried  20  inches  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  ground  on  a  sandy  knoll  and  dug  up  for  germination  tests  at 
intervals  of  five  years.   In  the  last  set,  removed  in  1919,  7  of  the  23  species  were 
still  alive  after  having  been  buried  for  40  years. 

Another  problem  is  the  continuing  evolution  of  weed  plant  species  whereby  some 
strains  become  resistant  to  herbicides  such  as  2,4-D,  so  that  continued  use  of  a 


206 


single  herbicide  might  result  in  defeat  of  the  original  purpose  for  which  it  was 
used. 

Selective  herbicidal  action  was  recognized  early  when  it  was  found  that  broad- 
leaved  weeds  could  be  killed  by  a  chemical  that  did  not  affect  the  cereals  among 
which  they  were  growing.   This  concept  has  been  greatly  refined  so  that  herbicides 
are  now  chosen  on  the  basis  of  the  specific  weeds  against  which  they  are  to  be  used. 

In  the  early  1950' s  new  preemergence-type  herbicides  became  available,  and  in 
1956  agronomists  at  Illinois  reported  for  the  first  time  that  "There  is  a  good  pos- 
sibility that  chemicals  may  largely  replace  cultural  practices  in  controlling  weeds 
in  the  future."  The  chemicals  involved  included  Simazine,   Eptan,  Dowpan,  Atrazine, 
and  others,  but  the  real  breakthrough  came  with  the  appearance  of  Treflan  in  1966. 

More  than  80  percent  of  the  corn  and  soybean  acreages  in  Illinois  is  treated 
with  herbicides  each  year- -mostly  on  a  preemergence  basis- -as  both  farmers  and  agron- 
omists continue  to  look  for  new  herbicides  and  new  methods  to  accomplish  still  bet- 
ter results. 

Illinois  staff  members  who  have  been  actively  engaged  in  various  phases  of  the 
weed  control  program—research,  teaching,  and  extension  —  include  John  J.  Pieper, 
Lloyd  V.  Sherwood,  R.  F.  Fuelleman,  Fred  W.  Slife,  George  E.  McKibben,  Ellery  L. 
Knake,  Marshal  D.  McGlamery,  and  Loyd  M.  Wax. 


207 


WHEELCHAIR  KITCHENS 


The  University  of  Illinois  has  long  been  interested  in  finding  ways  to  ease  the  pro- 
blems of  handicapped  persons,  in  particular  those  who  are  confined  to  wheelchairs. 
One  such  project  carried  out  in  the  Department  of  Home  Economics  involved  space  re- 
quirements for  wheelchairs,  dimensions  and  design  of  kitchen  equipment  of  various 
kinds,  and  kitchen  arrangements  adapted  to  wheelchair  use. 

Working  with  26  women  volunteers,  all  of  whom  were  confined  to  wheelchairs, 
Helen  McCullough  and  Mary  Farnham  conducted  a  series  of  tests  to  determine  suitable 
dimensions  and  the  best  use  of  space  for  carrying  out  ordinary  kitchen  activities 
from  a  sitting  position  in  a  wheelchair. 

Measurements  were  made  of  the  subjects  in  their  chairs,  space  requirements  for 
maneuvering  the  chair,  vertical  and  horizontal  reaches,  comfortable  working  heights, 
and  necessary  clearances  for  work  areas.   Kitchen  and  laundry  appliances  and  cabi- 
nets of  various  designs  were  then  tested  for  accessibility  and  ease  of  operation. 
Finally,  three  complete  kitchen  arrangements  were  tested  after  they  had  been  set  up 
in  conformity  with  the  dimensions  obtained  in  the  previous  tests. 

The  chief  variations  from  standard  kitchen  equipment  were  in  the  height  of 
sinks,  surface  cooking  units,  and  work  counters,  and  in  the  need  for  ample  knee 
space,  at  least  24  inches  wide,  under  these  units. 

A  good  height  for  sinks  and  surface  cooking  units  was  found  to  be  30  to  32  in- 
ches.  Sink  drains  at  the  back  of  the  bowls  provided  maximum  clearance  for  the  knees. 
A  one-hand  mixing  faucet  proved  most  convenient. 

Surface  cooking  units  were  most  satisfactory  when  placed  at  the  front  of  the 
counter,  with  all  controls  easily  accessible,  preferably  in  the  front  panel.   The 
most-used  shelf  in  the  oven  was  most  convenient  when  at  the  same  height  as  the  coun- 
ter, to  facilitate  sliding  filled  pans  and  casseroles  in  and  out. 

An  awning- type  window  above  the  sink,  if  provided  with  roto-lock  hardware,  could 
be  reached  and  operated  from  a  sitting  position. 

Front-opening  appliances  —  refrigerators,  dishwashers,  etc. --were  preferred,  and 
side-hinged  doors  on  such  items  were  most  convenient.   This  was  true  also  of  laun- 
dry equipment. 

Some  of  the  recommended  measurements  were: 

Reach  to  high  shelves  (maximum)  52  inches 

Height  of  mix  counter,  with  hand  or 

electric  mixer  27  inches 

Height  of  mix  counter  with  removable 

indented  bowls  30-32  inches 

Height  of  sink  or  range  30-32  inches 

Height  of  knee  clearance  (minimum)  24  inches 

Width  of  knee  clearance  (minimum)  24  inches 

208 


The  subjects  found  each  of  the  three  basic  kitchen  arrangements  easy  to  use, 
but  individual  tastes  varied  as  to  details.   The  U  kitchen  is  compact  but  has  two 
corners,  which  present  a  problem  of  access  from  wheelchairs.   The  L  kitchen  has 
more  free  open  space  but  also  requires  more  travel.   The  corridor  arrangement,  with 
5  feet  between  cabinets  or  appliances  opposite  each  other,  avoids  these  problems  and 
has  two  continuous  counters  that  are  convenient  for  sliding  some  objects  instead  of 
carrying  them  in  a  wheelchair.   Sketch  plans  for  each  type  of  kitchen  can  be  found 
in  Extension  Circular  841. 


209 


ZOONOSES  RESEARCH  CENTER 


Zoonotic  diseases  —  those  readily  transmissible  from  animals  to  man--are  of  major  im- 
portance to  human  health  because  their  causative  agents  usually  have  a  potential 
for  emergence  and  recession  that  is  not  often  true  of  other  classes  of  infectious 
diseases.   Furthermore,  these  maladies  often  involve  a  number  of  zoologically  un- 
related host  species.   Acute  infectious  encephalitides,  for  example,  embrace  such 
diverse  hosts  as  man,  horse,  mules,  birds,  reptiles,  and  mosquitoes. 

In  1963  C.A.  Brandly  and  L.D.  Fothergill  of  the  College  of  Veterinary  Medicine 
and  the  Experiment  Station  reported  at  the  17th  World  Veterinary  Congress  concern- 
ing the  establishment  at  the  University  of  Illinois  of  a  center  for  zoonoses  research, 
the  only  establishment  on  the  North  American  continent  devoted  exclusively  to  this 
field  of  research.   The  mission  of  the  center  is  to  investigate  the  emergence  and 
recession  of  zoonotic  diseases  through  a  multidisciplinary  approach. 

Initially,  the  Dixon  Springs  Experiment  Station  (now  the  Dixon  Springs  Agri- 
cultural Center)  in  southern  Illinois  was  chosen  for  intensive  field  study.   A  zoo- 
notic observational  network  involving  human  and  animal  populations  was  established, 
with  the  arbo  viruses  receiving  special  attention.   St.  Louis  encephalitis  was  cho- 
sen for  particular  study  as  it  first  emerged  and  then  receded  in  that  area. 


210 


'V 


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